Scotus
Chapter XLV - Scotus-I
John Duns Scotus: Biography and Academic Career
Birth and Origin:
Born in Scotland, likely in 1265 or 1266, in Maxton, Roxburgh.
Family name derived from a location in Berwick.
Early Life:
Joined the Order of Friars Minor in 1278.
Took the habit in 1280 and was ordained priest in 1291.
Death:
Died on November 8, 1308, in Cologne and buried in the Franciscan Church there.
Academic Journey
Study Period:
Studied at Paris (1293-1296) under Gonsalvus of Spain after a brief time at Oxford.
Teaching and Writings:
Commented on the Sentences, producing the Opus Oxoniense (Oxford Commentary on the Sentences).
Returned to Paris in 1302 and was banished in 1303 for supporting the Papal party against King Philip the Fair.
Banished again in Cologne and taught at Oxford (1303-1304) and returned to Paris to receive his doctorate in 1305.
Active teaching in Cologne until his death.
Authenticity of Scotus's Works
Authentic Works:
The commentaries on the Sentences are considered generally authentic.
De primo principio is also accepted as authentic.
Quaestiones Quodlibetales and the first nine books of Quaestiones subtilissimae super libros Metaphysicorum Aristotelis are authentic.
Disputed Works:
De Anima: Controversial validity; recent consensus favors authenticity.
De rerum principio: Generally regarded as unauthentic and a possible plagiarism.
Theoremata: Controversies exist due to inconsistencies in Scotus's other recognized works.
Interpretation of Scotus's Philosophy
General Interpretations:
Seen as either a revolutionary thinker or a continuator of the Franciscan tradition.
His philosophy represents a synthesis of Aristotelian and Augustinian thought with a distinctive emphasis on will over intellect.
Relation to Tradition:
While preserving elements of the Franciscan tradition, he also critiques and modifies them, indicating an independent philosophical stance.
Critique of Thomism:
Frequently critiques St. Thomas Aquinas, particularly focusing on the objectivity of knowledge and the rigidity of Thomistic proofs.
Key Philosophical Concepts
Intellect's Object:
Primary object of the intellect is being as being, establishing the foundational basis for all knowledge.
Although man can understand being, immediate knowledge of God is not achievable in life due to the focus on sensible objects.
Distinction in Knowledge:
Differentiate between intuitive knowledge (directly grasping an individual thing) and abstractive knowledge (categorization of concepts).
Argument for God:
Assuming being includes both finite and infinite, the intellect's challenge is to approach divine knowledge without direct access to divine essence.
Conclusion: Scotus's Impact
Critical Movement Initiator:
Scotus's critical approach paved the way for further philosophical skepticism, including the radical skepticism propounded by Ockham.
Legacy:
Scotus stands as a distinct voice in medieval philosophy, exhibiting a blend of construction and critique, influencing both his contemporaries and successors.
Chapter XLVI - Scotus-II: Knowledge
The Primary Object of Human Intellect
Being as Being: The primary object of the human intellect is defined by Scotus as being 'as being', indicating that all intelligible objects fall within its scope.
Argument from Avicenna: If being is not the primary object, it would imply being can be described through something more ultimate, which is impossible.
Infinite Being (God) is included in this definition, but does not imply immediate knowledge of God due to human intellect's focus on sensible things.
Limitations of Intellect
Intellect's Dependence on Phantasm: Scotus argues that the intellect is reliant on the 'phantasm' or senses for its knowledge in the current life, as influenced by divine wisdom or due to original sin.
This is not to confine the intellect to material objects exclusively; it emphasizes the intellect's nature as a faculty capable of understanding both material and immaterial beings in different states.
Difference in Views with St. Thomas: Scotus challenges St. Thomas Aquinas' assertion that the essence of material things is the primary object of intellect.
Claims that if the intellect can know immaterial things in heaven, then its primary object must be broader than merely material essence.
Knowledge of Self and Beyond
Knowledge of the Soul: Scotus maintains that the soul can potentially have direct knowledge of itself but is hindered in its current state.
Unlike St. Thomas, who posits indirect knowledge through abstraction, Scotus views the hindrance as preventable rather than a fixed limitation.
Intellectual Apprehension: Scotus believes abstraction can lead to knowledge of individual things, countering the Thomist view.
He asserts that both intuitive knowledge (of existing objects) and abstractive knowledge (essences considered apart from existence) exist, with a primary intuition existing despite limited access.
The Nature of Theology
Is Theology a Science?: Theology is considered a science only in the broadest sense and not necessarily comparable to the mathematical sciences.
Scotus stresses that theology reflectively engages with necessary truths of God but cannot be considered a 'science' in terms of deductive evidence as geometrical sciences are.
Theological Knowledge: The principles of dogmatic theology depend on faith, not natural reason; thus, theology is practical in serving as guidance for human action rather than merely speculative.
Sources of Knowledge
Experience and Sensation: Scotus rejects innate ideas, affirming all knowledge must stem from sensory experience, including knowledge of first principles.
The intellect functions by bringing together simple notions from experience to form complex understandings like laws of nature.
Induction and Knowledge Acquisition
Induction as a Method: Highlights the importance of induction in empirical knowledge, emphasizing that observation leads to conclusions about natural causes and effects.
Observed patterns allow the intellect to recognize and deduce connections between cause and effect, asserting that philosophy respects natural phenomena.
Critique of Illumination: Scotus substantively critiques the view that special illumination is needed for knowledge, arguing it leads to skepticism about our grasp of changing objects.
Summary of Knowledge Types
Intuitive vs. Abstractive Knowledge: Intuitive knowledge is understanding an object as actually existing and present, while abstractive knowledge pertains to essence independent of existence.
Distinction: Intuition requires existence; abstraction does not, allowing for a broader cognitive grasp of concepts and their realities regardless of our limitations in direct knowledge.
Chapter XLVII - Scotus-III: Metaphysics
Metaphysics Overview
Definition: Metaphysics is the science of being as being; it focuses on the concept of being itself.
Nature of Being:
Simplest and irreducible concept; cannot be fully defined.
Represents all that includes no contradiction and is not intrinsically impossible.
Encompasses both extramental (external) and intramental (internal) being.
Categories of Being
Passiones Entis (Categories):
Passiones Convertibiles: Categories convertible with being (e.g., one, true, good).
Every being is one, true, and good.
Passiones Disiunctae: Categories that are convertible only in pairs (e.g., necessary vs. contingent, act vs. potency).
Each being must be either act or potency, but not both.
Concept of Being
Univocal Concept of Being:
Introduced by Scotus to ensure metaphysical knowledge, particularly about God.
Allows the concept of being to be the same for both God and creatures, despite their different natures.
Distinction by Scotus
Primary Object of Intellect:
Being in general must be the primary object to safeguard metaphysical inquiry.
Critiques Thomistic positions that do not recognize this univocal concept as essential.
Contradiction & Syllogism:
A univocal term must imply real contradiction when affirmed and denied of the same subject.
Avoids equivocation in logical reasoning.
Attributes of Being
Transcendental Attributes:
Attributes like goodness can be predicated univocally of God and creatures.
Emphasis on the need for a common concept to communicate and know God.
Formal and Objective Distinction
Formal Distinction:
Distinction between essence and existence that does not imply a real separation.
Aimed at maintaining unity within knowledge while acknowledging diversity in understanding.
Distinction of Essence and Existence
Scotus rejects a real distinction between essence and existence in creatures:
Existence is not something different from essence; it cannot be clearly separated philosophically.
Emphasizes that creation means the production of an object out of nothing.
Universals and Individuation
View on Universals:
He acknowledges universals exist in intellect but argues for a distinction between nature and haecceitas (thisness).
No numerical identity among individuals of the same species.
Individuation:
Not by matter alone, but through haecceitas: the uniqueness of a matter-form composite.
Critiques prime matter as the sole principle behind individuation; accepts an existential basis.
Hylomorphism and Plurality of Forms
Hylomorphism: Affirmation of matter/form composition in all beings, including humans.
Plurality of Forms: Recognizes that additional forms, like corporeity, are necessary for various states of being, such as after death.
Summary of Scotus's Impact
His doctrines offer significant safeguards for natural theology, highlighting the ability to understand God through common concepts derived from creation, thus permitting a bridge between the known and the divine.
The balance between the nominal and the realist view in his theories allows for a more nuanced metaphysical exploration of existence, essence, and individuality in beings.
Chapter XLVIII - Scotus-IV: Natural Theology
God in Metaphysics
Scotus argues that God, being the first being, is not the primary subject of metaphysical science. Instead, knowledge of God comes a posteriori, through His effects in the world, making Him the proper object of theology.
Nature of Knowledge About God
Certain truths about God can be known through natural reason, such as God being one, supreme, and good. However, complexities, such as God being three Persons, fall within theological study rather than pure philosophy.
Perfections of God
Scotus lists various divine attributes (e.g., omnipotence, providence) and distinguishes between what can be demonstrated philosophically and what is accepted as credibilia by believers. He clarifies that metaphysics can yield insights into God’s perfections but does not encompass all divine truths.
Argument for God’s Existence
Scotus posits that the existence of God requires a rational proof which is ultimately a posteriori. The Anselmian argument is mentioned as one potential proof but requires further explanation.
Concept of God from Creatures
Knowledge of God is abstracted from the experience of creatures. Our understanding is imperfect, as it is mediated by human concepts derived from finite beings, such as goodness and actuality.
First Cause Argument
Scotus criticizes the argument from motion, emphasizing that mere motion does not suffice to prove the existence of the necessary Being. Instead, he advocates for understanding God as the first cause or necessary being that has to exist to explain contingent beings.
Contingency and Necessary Being
The existence of contingent beings (those that can exist or not exist) indicates the necessity for an uncaused cause, distinguishing essential series of causes from mere accidental ones. An infinite series of contingent beings does not explain existence; thus, a necessary Being must be posited.
Unity of God
Scotus argues that there can only be one necessary being since multiple necessary beings would contradict the definition of necessity, which has to imply uniqueness. This leads to the conclusion that God's essence is unified.
Divine Attributes
He insists on the simplicity of God, arguing that God is not composed of parts and is purely simple. God possesses intelligence and will, which is necessary but distinct from His essence.
Infinity of God
The concept of God encompasses infinity as a central attribute, with Scotus outlining several arguments for God being infinite in power, knowledge, and existence. Infinity indicates the absence of limitations, thus encompassing all perfections.
Anselm's Ontological Argument
Scotus interprets Anselm’s argument to assert that the existence of a perfect being is logically coherent, and since the notion of God does not involve contradiction, God must exist. However, he considers this argument to be a probable persuasion rather than a demonstrative proof.
Limitations of Natural Reason
Not all divine attributes can be conclusively demonstrated through natural reason. Attributes such as omnipotence and providence fall into the domain of faith.
Distinction of Divine Attributes
Scotus articulates a formal distinction among divine attributes, asserting that while these attributes are identical with God's essence, they are distinct in terms of their formal character.
Nature of Divine Ideas
The divine intellect produces ideas, with the divine essence as their foundation. The ideas, while infinite in number, depend on God’s essence for their existence.
Freedom of the Divine Will
Scotus emphasizes that while God’s will is necessary in regard to His essence, this does not imply arbitrariness in His actions—God's free choice underscores the contingent nature of creation, which He can create freely from nothing.
Creation and Its Philosophical Implications
Creation, specifically from nothing, is supported by natural reason, though the specifics of temporal creation cannot be fully philosophically demonstrated. Scotus articulates the relationship between God and creation as involving real relations for the creature and mental relations for God.
Theses on the Nature of the Soul (to be elaborated in the next chapter)
The rational soul is defined as the specific form of man, capable of intellectual understanding that transcends the capabilities of sensitive knowledge, asserting the role of the rational soul in human identity.Chapter XLIX - Scotus-V: The Soul
Logical Priority vs. Temporal Priority
Scotus discusses the relationship between logical priority and temporal priority in creation.
He suggests that it's not necessary for things like 'nihil' (nothingness) to precede the world temporally, only logically.
This reflects Scotus' departure from St. Bonaventure’s view which holds that creation's temporality can be philosophically demonstrated.
Aligns more closely with St. Thomas Aquinas' view that creation in time lacks philosophical demonstration.
The Rational Soul as the Specific Form of Man
Definition and Importance of the Rational Soul
The rational soul is defined as the specific form of man, which is essential to human nature.
Averroes' opinion that the intellect is a separate principle is rejected by Scotus.
All notable philosophers agree that 'rational' is part of human definition, aligning with Aristotle's views.
Argument for the Rational Soul's Role
Scotus uses an enthymeme to prove that the rational soul is the form of man:
Premise: "Man understands (intelligit, apprehends intellectually) formally and properly."
Conclusion: Therefore, the intellectual soul is the proper form of man.
Intellectual cognition is unique as it transcends sensory experiences linked to physical organs.
Intellectual vs. Sensory Knowledge
Intellectual apprehension and knowledge:
Sensation is confined to organic functions with specific objects (e.g., vision relates to color).
The intellect has a broader capability, allowing it to understand concepts beyond immediate sensory experiences.
Nature of the Soul in Relation to Body
The soul is unified with the body, uniquely representing the composite being of humans.
Although referred to as subsistent, the soul cannot exist independently as it is part of the man composed of soul and body.
The soul’s purpose is to be the animating principle, giving life (esse vivum) to the body, not simply existence (esse simpliciter).
The Soul's Immortality
Philosophical Arguments for Immortality
Scotus argues the immortality of the soul cannot be strictly proven through philosophy, unlike its status as man's specific form.
Recognizes the lack of definitive philosophical proof for two aspects:
The soul's immortality.
The resurrection of the body.
Philosophical arguments for immortality are considered probable but not necessary or demonstrative.
Critique of Prior Arguments
Challenges St. Thomas Aquinas’ arguments about the soul's incorruptibility and subsistence, claiming they presuppose conclusions that need to be proved.
Scotus argues the soul’s independence should be more rigorously demonstrated.
The desire for immortality as proof is critiqued, highlighting that mere desire is not sufficient to argue for reality.
Ethics and the Nature of Good Acts
Nature of Moral Goodness
A morally good act must proceed from a free will aligned with right reason.
Good acts are defined not only by their intention but also by adherence to right reason.
Components of Morality
Morally good acts require more than freedom; they require the object of the act and other circumstances to align with reason.
Love towards God is deemed cannot be morally evil, whereas hatred cannot be morally good.
Importance of Circumstances
The end (or purpose) of an act is crucial among the circumstances that help define morality.
An act with a good end is not automatically morally good if the means or intention contradict the morality of the act.
Chapter XLIX - Scotus-V: The Soul
Logical Priority vs. Temporal Priority
Scotus discusses the relationship between logical priority and temporal priority in creation.
He suggests that it's not necessary for things like 'nihil' (nothingness) to precede the world temporally, only logically.
This reflects Scotus' departure from St. Bonaventure’s view which holds that creation's temporality can be philosophically demonstrated.
Aligns more closely with St. Thomas Aquinas' view that creation in time lacks philosophical demonstration.
The Rational Soul as the Specific Form of Man
Definition and Importance of the Rational Soul
The rational soul is defined as the specific form of man, which is essential to human nature.
Averroes' opinion that the intellect is a separate principle is rejected by Scotus.
All notable philosophers agree that 'rational' is part of human definition, aligning with Aristotle's views.
Argument for the Rational Soul's Role
Scotus uses an enthymeme to prove that the rational soul is the form of man:
Premise: "Man understands (intelligit, apprehends intellectually) formally and properly."
Conclusion: Therefore, the intellectual soul is the proper form of man.
Intellectual cognition is unique as it transcends sensory experiences linked to physical organs.
Intellectual vs. Sensory Knowledge
Intellectual apprehension and knowledge:
Sensation is confined to organic functions with specific objects (e.g., vision relates to color).
The intellect has a broader capability, allowing it to understand concepts beyond immediate sensory experiences.
Nature of the Soul in Relation to Body
The soul is unified with the body, uniquely representing the composite being of humans.
Although referred to as subsistent, the soul cannot exist independently as it is part of the man composed of soul and body.
The soul’s purpose is to be the animating principle, giving life (esse vivum) to the body, not simply existence (esse simpliciter).
The Soul's Immortality
Philosophical Arguments for Immortality
Scotus argues the immortality of the soul cannot be strictly proven through philosophy, unlike its status as man's specific form.
Recognizes the lack of definitive philosophical proof for two aspects:
The soul's immortality.
The resurrection of the body.
Philosophical arguments for immortality are considered probable but not necessary or demonstrative.
Critique of Prior Arguments
Challenges St. Thomas Aquinas’ arguments about the soul's incorruptibility and subsistence, claiming they presuppose conclusions that need to be proved.
Scotus argues the soul’s independence should be more rigorously demonstrated.
The desire for immortality as proof is critiqued, highlighting that mere desire is not sufficient to argue for reality.
Ethics and the Nature of Good Acts
Nature of Moral Goodness
A morally good act must proceed from a free will aligned with right reason.
Good acts are defined not only by their intention but also by adherence to right reason.
Components of Morality
Morally good acts require more than freedom; they require the object of the act and other circumstances to align with reason.
Love towards God is deemed cannot be morally evil, whereas hatred cannot be morally good.
Importance of Circumstances
The end (or purpose) of an act is crucial among the circumstances that help define morality.
An act with a good end is not automatically morally good if the means or intention contradict the morality of the act.
Chapter L - Scotus-VI: Ethics
Arguments for Immortality
Nature of Arguments: While some views suggest arguments for immortality lack persuasion, they are not entirely without value; they merely don't provide demonstrative proof.
Argument from Desire: This argument is weakened because:
Biological inclination to avoid death is present in animals (brutes) too.
To use desire for immortality as proof of reality requires first proving that immortality is a possibility, which rests on the condition that the soul can survive beyond physical death.
Suffering vs. Happiness: Although life contains suffering, this alone does not necessitate an afterlife to counterbalance that suffering. Both pleasure and suffering coexist naturally.
Sanctions of Afterlife: Arguments stating that because there are perceived rewards and punishments in an afterlife thus necessitating its existence, lack credibility without demonstrating divine justice.
Intellect's Role: The intellectual independence of the soul from the body may serve as a probable argument for immortality, yet it remains inconclusive.
Scotus's Ethics
Moral Acts and Nature
Good Acts Defined:
Naturally Good Acts: Possess necessary attributes for their essence, similar to how a beautiful body has qualities like size and shape.
Morally Good Acts: Must align with right reason (recta ratio) beyond their inherent nature.
An act must be free to be considered morally praiseworthy or blameworthy.
Conditional Goodness of Acts:
Act goodness is based on conformity with right reason, but no act is good purely by its object except for the love of God (always good) and hatred of God (always bad).
The goodness of any act is also contingent on intention and circumstances (e.g., the end of the act).
Indifferent Acts and Their Justification
Indifferent Acts: Defined as acts done without moral intention, such as giving alms without thought of God.
Primary Principle: According to Scotus, the love of God is paramount, but not all acts must explicitly refer to God to be morally neutral.
Nature of Moral Law and Divine Will
Moral Law Context:
God's Role: Divine will establishes moral obligation, but it is not arbitrary; it reflects God's nature of goodness.
Intellect vs. Will: God’s intellect comprehends natures that align with moral law, but the obligation of such laws arises from divine will.
Tensions in Moral Law's Authority
The moral law is grounded in self-evident truths, particularly the Ten Commandments, which are binding not merely because they are prescribed but because they are rationally discernible.
Dispensation: Scotus allows for divine dispensation in secondary precepts (commands) that may not follow necessarily from primary principles, differing from Thomist positions.
Political Authority
Distinction between paternal authority and political authority; the latter is legitimized by common consent and community choice.
Legitimate Authority: Successful legislators require prudence and must act in the common good, avoiding private advantage.
Human laws must align with both natural moral law and divine law; Scotus's view upholds the virtue of non-despotism in governance, rejecting moral authority as lying solely within the state's grasp.