Stage 5 Geography - Geographical Skills Workbooklet Notes

Skills Checklist

• Maps:

  • Using atlases (online).
  • Using various map types: physical, political, topographic, and thematic.
  • Using flowcharts.
  • Identifying and using map elements (BOLTS: Border, Orientation, Legend, Title, Scale).
  • Distinguishing map projections.
  • Locating features using latitude and longitude.
  • Locating features using area and grid references.
  • Identifying physical and human features.
  • Using compass points for direction.
  • Constructing sketch maps.
  • Reading synoptic charts.
  • Measuring distances using linear scales.
  • Identifying scale (written, linear, representative fraction).
  • Calculating feature area.
  • Measuring bearings.
  • Calculating local relief.
  • Identifying slope aspect.
  • Calculating slope gradient: $Gradient = \frac{Vertical \ Distance}{Horizontal \ Distance}$
  • Constructing cross-sections.
  • Constructing transects.
  • Constructing land use maps.
  • Calculating feature density.
  • Distinguishing large-scale and small-scale maps.

• Graphs and Statistics:

  • Identifying and calculating maximum, minimum, total, range, rank, and average.
  • Constructing and interpreting bar and column graphs.
  • Constructing and interpreting climate graphs.
  • Constructing and interpreting multiple line graphs.
  • Constructing and interpreting proportional graphs.
  • Constructing and interpreting population pyramids.

• Fieldwork:

  • Using geographical instruments.
  • Collecting and recording primary and secondary data.
  • Developing a Research Action Plan.

• Photographs:

  • Collecting and interpreting photographic images.
  • Distinguishing aerial, ground-level photographs, and satellite imagery.
  • Drawing a line drawing.

A-Z of Geographical Skills

Area

• Area measures the space features occupy on a map, typically in square kilometers ($km^2$).
• Methods to measure area involve:
  • Counting boxes (if the area is large).
  • Multiplying length and width using the map scale for accuracy.
• Steps to calculate:
  1. Determine the scale: 1 cm = ? km.
  2. Measure the feature's length with a ruler and convert using the scale.
  3. Measure the feature's width with a ruler and convert using the scale.
  4. Multiply the length by the width to get the area in square kilometers ($km^2$).
• Example: If length = 5 km and width = 4 km, then area = 20 $km^2$.

Area and Grid References

• Grid references are used to locate features on topographic maps using a grid pattern.
• Area Reference (AR): A four-figure numerical location combining eastings and northings.
• Grid Reference (GR): A six-figure numerical location providing a more precise point using three-figure eastings and northings.
• Eastings: Vertical lines increasing eastwards, used to measure eastwards distance.
• Northings: Horizontal lines increasing northwards, used to measure northwards distance.
• To determine the Grid Reference you must:
  1. Numbers along the bottom of the map (Eastings) come first, followed by numbers up the side (Northings).
  2. Four-figure reference 2259 indicates where Easting 22 meets Northing 59.
  3. Six-figure reference 205605 pinpoints the exact location within square 2060, being 5/10 across and 5/10 up.

Aspect

• Aspect is the direction a slope faces, expressed using compass points (e.g., northerly, north-easterly).
• Determined by observing contour lines on a topographic map: the lower contours indicate the direction the slope faces.

Bearing

• Bearings provide accurate directions as angles in degrees from North, measured clockwise.
• A circle has 360°.
• Directions are stated as three-figure bearings (e.g., 090° is East).
• Measured using a compass or protractor on a map, with North typically at the top.

BOLTS (Border, Orientation, Legend, Title, Scale)

• B (Border): A clear, defined border surrounding the map.
• O (Orientation): An arrow indicating North.
• L (Legend): Also called a key, it explains symbols and colors on the map.
  • Color scheme: Brown for land, green for vegetation, blue for water, black/red for human features.
• T (Title): Specifies the map's content, including place name and description.
• S (Scale): Relates map distances to real-world distances, shown as linear, statement, or ratio scale. It allows calculation of size, height and dimensions.
  • Example: A 1:50,000 scale means 1 cm on the map equals 50,000 cm (500 m or 0.5 km) on the ground.

Calculations Using Graphs and Tables

• Increase/Decrease: Subtract the earlier figure from the later figure.
• Percentage Increase/Decrease: Divide the difference between the two figures by the original figure, then multiply by 100:
  $\frac{Figure<em>{later} - Figure</em>{earlier}}{Figure_{earlier}} \times 100$

Contour Lines and Spot Heights

• Contour Lines: Lines on maps join points of equal elevation above sea level, showing landform shapes.
  • Close contours indicate steep slopes.
  • Widely spaced contours indicate gentle slopes.
• Contour Interval: The constant vertical distance between contour lines on a map.
• Spot Heights: Points with a dot and a number indicating their exact height. Trig stations, marked with a triangle, are accurately measured points.

Density of Buildings

• Density measures the number of features (e.g., buildings) per square kilometer ($km^2$).
• High density means many features in an area; low density means few features.
• Calculation steps:
  1. Calculate the area.
  2. Count the number of features in that space.
  3. Calculate the number of features per square kilometer.
• Example: 5 houses in a 10 $km^2$ village = 0.5 houses/$km^2$.

Direction

• Compass points describe relative locations.
• Basic points: North, South, East, West.
• Maps usually have a North arrow.

Gradient

• Gradient measures the steepness of land between two points, expressed as a ratio.
• Calculation steps:
  1. Calculate the rise: the difference in height between the highest and lowest points.
  2. Calculate the run: the horizontal distance between the two points (convert using scale).
  3. Calculate the gradient (M) using the formula:
     $Gradient = \frac{Difference \ in \ height \ (rise)}{Horizontal \ distance \ (run)}$
  4. Express the gradient as a ratio (e.g., 1:4).

Graph and Table Interpretation

• Graphs and tables present data to help geographers analyze information.
• Geographic conventions (SALTS) for constructing graphs:
  • Scale: Clearly indicated units of measurement.
  • Axis: Clearly labeled axes.
  • Legend: Explains symbols, colors, or lines.
  • Title: Describes the data and year of collection.
  • Source: Indicates data origin.
• Different types of graphs: bar, column, multiple bar, compound bar, cumulative bar, line, multiple line, cumulative line, and pie graphs.

Latitude and Longitude

• Latitude: Imaginary lines running around the Earth parallel to the equator (0°), measured in degrees North (N) or South (S).
  • Key lines: Equator, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle, Antarctic Circle.
• Longitude: Lines running between the North and South Poles, measured in degrees East or West of the Prime Meridian (0°).
  • Key line: International Date Line (IDL) at approximately 180°.
• Locations are specified as degrees, minutes (´), and seconds (˝).
  • Example: Wellington, New Zealand: 41°17´S 174°47´E.

Local Relief and Relief

• Local relief: the difference between the highest and lowest points in an area.
• Contour lines, colors, shading, spot heights, and symbols indicate relief patterns.

Proportional Circles

• Proportional circles represent data values by varying the size of circles.
• Circle sizes are proportional to the variable they represent.

Photographs

• Photographs record geographic features.
• Types of photos:
  • Ground photos.
  • Vertical aerial photos.
  • Oblique aerial photos.
  • Satellite images.
• Line Drawing/Field Sketch include annotated observations of photographic image.

Quadrant

• Divide a map into four equal areas: Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE), Southwest (SW), Southeast (SE).

Scale and Distance

• Large-scale maps: show small areas with much detail.
• Small-scale maps: show large areas with little detail.
• Scale representation:
  1. Linear scale: a line divided into sections representing distance.
  2. Numeric scale: expressed as a ratio (e.g., 1:100,000).
  3. Statement scale: a sentence (e.g., "1 cm represents 100 meters").
• Measuring distances, must take into account straight or curved lines by using rulers or strings to calculate real world measurements.

Types of Maps

• Physical maps: show natural features.
• Topographic maps: detail natural and built environments.
• Political maps: show political units and cities.
• Synoptic charts: weather maps.
• Choropleth maps: use color shades to show amounts or values.
• Thematic maps: illustrate specific themes.
• Cadastral maps: show property boundaries.
• Nautical charts: represent maritime areas.
• Isoline maps: join places of equal value.
• Cartograms: distort shapes to represent data.
• Flowline maps: show movement with arrows.
• Map Projections: represent the 3D Earth on a 2D surface. Types include Conical, Azimuthal, Cylindrical, Robinson’s, and Mercator’s.
• Precis Maps: Summarize features of an area shown in the map. Typically a simplified version of a topographic map.