Consolidation and maintenance of power, Nazi Germany

Page 1: Hitler’s Appointment as Chancellor

  • Date of Appointment: January 30, 1933

  • Context:

    • Hitler's appointment came after the November 1932 election, where Nazis lost votes for the first time since 1929.

    • Indicated a possible internal crisis within the Nazi Party.

    • Continuing violence between Nazis and communists raised fears of civil war.

    • Previous governments were failing and conservative elites needed Nazi support to govern.

  • Political Maneuvering:

    • An impasse existed; elites persuaded President Hindenburg to appoint Hitler while surrounding him with conservative ministers.

    • This led to a deal granting Hitler the power he wanted.

  • Establishment vs. Consolidation:

    • Unclear when the “establishment phase” ended and the “consolidation phase” began.

    • Summer 1933 considered the starting point of consolidation (no opposition parties left, coordinated civil society).

    • Discussion can include events as far back as January 1933 and as far forward as July/August 1934.

    • Notable examples of consolidation:

      • Night of the Long Knives (June 30, 1934): Elimination of opposition.

      • Outlawing of opposition parties (July 1933).

      • Appointment of Chancellor marked the beginning of consolidation.

Page 2: Use of Force and Treatment of Opposition

  • Initial Use of Force:

    • Force played a significant role in the early consolidation of power.

    • Political Violence: Large-scale violence by the SA in early 1933 set the groundwork for the regime's control.

    • Use of violence decreased until the war began.

  • Concentration Camps:

    • Established in 1933; targeted political opponents.

    • Estimated 100,000 imprisoned in total that year.

    • Over time, also included the unemployed, long-time criminals, mentally ill.

  • SS and Gestapo:

    • Acts as informants, fostering an atmosphere of fear.

    • Violence propagated as propaganda to reinforce the regime's image.

    • Fear of violence and torture remained a tool against opposition.

  • Key Events:

    • Night of Long Knives:

      • Targeted leaders seen as rivals (e.g., SA leadership).

      • Illustrated extrajudicial killings accepted by society and later approved by courts.

      • Strengthened Hitler's position and reduced threats.

Page 3: Long-Term Use of Force

  • Myth of the Gestapo:

    • While portrayed as omnipresent, the Gestapo had limited numbers and relied on citizen denunciations.

  • Use of Force in WWII:

    • Increased use of force during WWII; stricter laws and executions rose significantly.

  • Arguments Against Force:

    • From mid-1933 onwards, political violence against opponents diminished.

    • Many individuals conformed or cooperated due to ideology, peer pressure, or belonging.

  • Historical Debate:

    • Robert Gellately: Nazi Germany as a 'dictatorship by consent' with minimal use of force until WWII.

    • Richard Evans: Emphasizes terror and intimidation as critical to the regime, preventing organized opposition.

Page 4: Legal Methods

  • Significance of Legal Methods:

    • Key in both consolidation and maintenance of power.

    • Created a façade of legality in establishing a one-party state.

  • Critical Legal Events:

    • February 22, 1933: SA enrolled as auxiliary police.

    • February 28, 1933: Reichstag Fire Decree suspended civil rights and imprisoned opponents.

    • March 23, 1933: Enabling Act allowed Hitler to govern without Reichstag oversight.

  • Gleichschaltung (Coordination):

    • Enforcement of Nazi ideologies through legal frameworks, including banning of unions and political parties.

    • Purged civil service of political opponents and Jews.

Page 5: Continued Legal Repression

  • Further Legal Measures:

    • April 1933: Laws purging political adversaries from the civil service enacted.

    • July 1933: Political parties banned.

  • Legal Instruments:

    • Ordinary laws used to deter opposition, including laws enforcing harsh penalties for dissent.

    • Special courts created to handle political cases, judges loyal to Hitler.

  • Richard Evans Perspective:

    • Argued that the Nazi regime's terror mechanism was primarily legal rather than through camps, showcasing misuse of the legal system to establish repression.

Page 6: Integration of Force and Law

  • Overlap of Legal and Extralegal Means:

    • Legal methods were employed in conjunction with the threat of force.

    • Reichstag Fire Decree and subsequent laws emerged in contexts of intimidation and violence.

  • Fear as a Tool:

    • The implementation of legal measures often capitalized on fear, ensuring compliance and deterring opposition.