Study Notes: The Origins and Course of the First World War, 1905-18

THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM

Timeframe and purpose: post-mid-19th century to 1914; two opposing power blocs formed due to suspicion, ambition, and rivalry.
Two main blocs by 1914:
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (in 1882 joined the Triple Alliance; Italy later switched sides in 1915).
- Allied Powers (Triple Entente): Britain, France, Russia (Russia joined in 1907; formal alliance evolving from earlier understandings).
Core tensions shaping the system:
- Imperial and economic rivalry: overseas empires, colonial possessions, and markets competing for dominance.
- Nationalism and prestige: each power sought security and prestige through imperial expansion and military strength.
Key relationships and rivalries:
- Britain–Germany: fear of German naval and industrial growth challenging British sea power and global empire.
- France–Germany: Alsace-Lorraine as a continuing source of tension since 1871.
- Russia–Austria-Hungary–Germany: Balkan and Slavic issues; competing influence in Eastern Europe.
Societal and political factors:
- Industrialisation and the arms race increased the potential for conflict.
- The “splendid isolation” of Britain faded as Germany’s growth challenged British dominance (naval and economic).
The two alliances contributed to a system in which a regional crisis could escalate into a continental, then global conflict.

KEY CONCEPTS AND TERMS

Weltpolitik: German “world policy” aimed at turning Germany into a global power through colonies, a large navy, and a more assertive foreign policy. $ext{Weltpolitik}$
Entente Cordiale: 1904 Britain–France agreement easing colonial rivalry and aligning interests.
Algeciras Conference (1906): attempted to settle Moroccan crisis; France gained influence in Morocco; Germany felt embarrassed and refused to back down in future disputes.
Treaty of Fez (1911): France gained control over Morocco; Germany gained land in the Congo; escalated tensions.
The Balkans as a hotspot: rapid nationalist movements, Balkan Wars (1912–13), and the Bosnian crisis (1908–09) heightened Great Power rivalries.
Nationalism and conscription: rising nationalism fed support for militarised national projects; mass conscription linked to plans for war.
Naval arms race: Britain’s HMS Dreadnought (launched 1906) and the German High Seas Fleet spurred a costly naval buildup. Details: between 1906–1914, Britain built 29 Dreadnoughts and Germany built 17; Britain and Germany competed for naval dominance.
Military planning and mobilization: Schlieffen Plan (1905) vs Plan 17 (France, 1913): pre-war war plans for quick mobilization and war on two fronts.

THE GROWTH OF TENSION IN EUROPE, 1905-14

2.1 THE MOROCCAN CRISES (1905-06 and 1911-12)

1905 Moroccan crisis:
- Kaiser Wilhelm II visited Tangier in 1905 to show Germany’s interest in North Africa; publicly claimed equal economic rights in Morocco.
- Britain and France reacted with concern about naval bases and sea routes; British fear of a base in Morocco threatening Gibraltar.
- Outcome: Algeciras Conference (1906) led to French control of Moroccan affairs with trade open to all; temporarily calmed the crisis but damaged German prestige.
1911–12 Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir incident):
- German gunboat SMS Panther sent to Agadir; Germany asserted protection of German nationals and interests.
- France responded by sending more troops to Fez; British pressured France to limit action, but Britain ultimately supported France and tensions rose.
- Treaty of Fez (Nov 1911) resolved the immediate crisis: France could control Morocco; Germany received land in the Congo; tensions with Britain–France entente increased.
Long-term effects:
- Strengthened Entente Cordiale between Britain and France; increased German resentment and a sense of being sidelined in Africa.
- The Moroccan crises highlighted competing imperial ambitions and foreshadowed wider rivalries in Europe.
EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE: Kaiser Wilhelm’s Tangier visit and German reactions showed a “place in the sun” mindset in Germany; the crises contributed to a growing sense of threat among Britain and France, pushing them toward closer cooperation against German ambitions.

2.2 CRISIS IN THE BALKANS

Context: Balkans as a volatile region where Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany sought influence; aim to control serbian interests and access to the Mediterranean.
Key players’ aims:
- Austria-Hungary: prevent Serbian nationalism from breaking apart the empire; gain Adriatic coastline.
- Russia: protect Slavs (Serbs) and gain access to the Mediterranean via the Dardanelles.
- Germany: support Austria-Hungary to expand influence; build economic routes through the Balkans (e.g., railway ambitions Berlin–Baghdad).
1908 Bosnian Crisis: Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina; Serbia protested; Russia supported Serbia; heightened tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, and between Austria-Hungary and Russia.
Balkan Wars (1912-13):
- First Balkan War: Balkan League (Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro) defeated Ottoman Empire; territorial gains in Europe.
- Second Balkan War: Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece; Romania and Turkey joined; Serbia gained more land; increased nationalism and Serbian power.
The Black Hand: Serbian nationalist secret society (Unity or Death) formed in 1911; sought to unite Serbs across borders; contributed to instability and attempted assassinations as part of a broader strategy.
Impact on Europe:
- The Balkans became a flashpoint that drew in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and eventually all major powers; increased traditional rivalries and suspicion.
OUTCOME: The Balkans crisis and nationalist tensions created a volatile environment that helped precipitate July 1914, culminating in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

2.3 MURDER AT SARAJEVO (28 JUNE 1914)

Event: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (Black Hand member).
Immediate context:
- The Black Hand aimed to promote Serbian nationalist objectives and undermined Austro-Hungarian authority in the Balkans.
- Franz Ferdinand’s visit was intended as a show of strength; the open-top car made him an easy target.
Aftermath:
- Austria-Hungary used the assassination as a pretext to take a hard line against Serbia; issued a list of demands (23 July 1914) that would compromise Serbian sovereignty.
- Serbia agreed to most demands but rejected one, specifically allowing Austrian officials to “wipe out” Black Hand remnants on Serbian soil; Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914.
Chain reaction:
- Russia pledged to support Serbia; Germany offered support to Austria-Hungary; Germany invoked the Schlieffen Plan to defeat France quickly, then Russia.
- July crisis escalated into a broader conflict, triggering World War I as alliance commitments pulled in Britain, France, Russia, and eventually the United States.

3. THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN AND DEADLOCK ON THE WESTERN FRONT

3.1 THE SCHLIEFFEN PLAN (1905) and PLAN 17 (France)

Schlieffen Plan (Count Alfred von Schlieffen):
- Purpose: Germany would avoid fighting a two-front war by quickly defeating France in the west, then turning to face Russia in the east.
- Key assumption: Russia would require 6 weeks to mobilise; thus, France could be defeated first if Germany struck through Belgium into northern France and captured Paris quickly.
- Outcome reality: Belgian resistance and French/American actions slowed the advance; the plan failed to deliver a rapid victory.
Plan 17 (France, 1913):
- French strategy to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine; cross the Rhine into Germany; major offensive in the east against Germany.
Other strategic elements:
- The 1904 Entente Cordiale and 1907 Triple Entente meant alliances were aligned against German expansion, contributing to the “war on two fronts” problem that the Schlieffen Plan sought to avoid.
Immediate consequences of the plan’s failure:
- The Western Front quickly descended into trench warfare after the initial German push stalls; the war of movement gave way to a war of attrition along a broad front.

3.2 DEADLOCK ON THE WESTERN FRONT

Transition to trench warfare (late 1914):
- A line stretched from the English Channel to Switzerland; front lines, support and reserve trenches, and no-man’s-land became the norm.
Reasons for deadlock:
- Strength of defensive works: barbed wire, deep trenches, sandbags; machine guns and artillery dominated the battlefield.
- Ineffectiveness of attacking tactics: early artillery bombardments often failed to neutralize front-line defenses; tanks and aircraft were not yet capable of decisive breakthroughs in 1914.
- Mud and terrain: Flanders’ wet conditions hampered movement and supply lines.
- Outdated tactics: many generals were trained for pre-war warfare; insufficient adaptation to trench warfare or modern technology.
Result: stalemate that lasted for much of the war, with both sides unable to secure a decisive breakthrough until late 1918.
KEY FEATURES:
- No-man’s-land and shellholes; the brutal reality of crossing into enemy trenches.
- Widespread use of artillery, machine guns, poison gas; observation aircraft used for reconnaissance.
- Casualty Clearing Stations (CCS) and long supply lines; high rates of sickness and disease (mud and trench conditions).
DEFINING BATTLES DURING THE PERIOD:
- The Somme (July–Nov 1916): massive casualties; initial British pumps into “no-man’s-land” with little gain; introduced creeping barrage and early tank use (limited success).
- Passchendaele (July–Nov 1917): mud and waterlogged terrain; enormous casualties for marginal territorial gains (roughly 800m gained vs 240k Allied and 220k German casualties on British/German sides).

4. LIFE IN THE TRENCHES AND NEW WEAPONS (3.x sections)

3.2 LIVING IN THE TRENCHES

Daily life:
- 4 days in frontline, 4 days in support, 8 days in reserve, 14 days resting (variations occurred).
- Sentries, trench repairs, and supply runs; frequent night patrols; occasional night attacks.
Conditions and hardships:
- Squalor: mud, cold, rats, lice; poor sanitation; daily routines include cooking, waste management, and medical care far behind the lines.
- Health problems: trench foot, trenches’ filth leading to disease; dysentery, pneumonia, and other illnesses were common.
- Psychological strain: shell-shock; the stigma around it gradually shifted toward understanding it as a medical condition.
Casualties and medical care:
- Wounded sent to CCS or base hospitals; limited treatment options; antibiotics unavailable; amputations common in severe cases.
Everyday life sources:
- Primary sources such as field postcards, “Wipers Times,” and medical reports illustrate daily life and morale.

3.3 NEW WEAPONS AND METHODS

Aircraft and reconnaissance:
- Planes and observation balloons used for detecting troop movements, providing battlefield intelligence; pilots faced dangerous conditions.
Tanks and infantry tactics:
- Tanks introduced during the Somme (1916) but initially unreliable; more successful later (Cambrai, 1917).
- Creeping barrage: a coordinated artillery advance that moved ahead of infantry to suppress German defenses.
Key weapons:
- Machine guns: highly effective in defense; British Vickers could fire ~ $450-500$ rounds per minute at ~ $2000$ m range; limited impact on breakthroughs in 1914–15.
- Artillery: mobile field guns; large siege guns like German “Big Bertha” (long-range bombardment capabilities); fuses (e.g., fuse 106) to cut through barbed wire.
- Poison gas: first used by Germany at Second Battle of Ypres (April 1915); chlorine, phosgene, mustard gas; gas was deadly but weather-dependent and often unreliable.
- Gas masks and protective equipment developed to cope with gas attacks.
Notable figures/notes:
- Clara Haber and Fritz Haber highlighted ethical concerns around chemical warfare.
- The war’s aerial and ground innovations altered combat likelihoods and casualties.

5. THE SOMME AND PASSCHENDAELE: SUCCESSES AND FAILURES

5.1 THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME (July–Nov 1916)

Strategic aims:
- A joint British-French offensive to relieve pressure on Verdun and break the German lines.
- German Verdun offensive diverted German resources; Somme intended to draw German troops away from Verdun.
Key events and outcomes:
- Massive bombardment (June 1916) preceded infantry assault; Allied casualties on day one: $57{,}470$ (Allies) and $8{,}000$ (Germans).
- Initial gains were limited; fatal underestimation of German defenses and the effectiveness of barbed wire and machine guns.
- By November 1916: Allied casualties around $620{,}000$ ; German casualties around $450{,}000$ ; territorial gains were limited.
Tanks:
- 50 tanks used on day; only 29 reached the front; many broke down; tanks would become central to later breakthroughs.
Leadership and controversy:
- General Haig’s strategy of attrition; debate over the campaign’s effectiveness and moral implications; some argued it saved Verdun by tying down German troops, others blamed Haig for high casualties.
Aftermath and significance:
- Demonstrated the futility of many early attempts to break entrenched lines; pushed warfare toward combined-arms breakthroughs in 1917–18.

5.2 THE BATTLE OF PASSCHENDAELE (July–Nov 1917)

Aims and environment:
- Haig sought to break through to the Belgian coast to disrupt German submarine routes and seize key ports; the campaign occurred in heavily waterlogged terrain.
Conditions and casualties:
- Heavy rainfall turned the battlefield into a sea of mud; Allied gains were minimal (roughly 800m); casualties around $240{,}000$ British and $220{,}000$ German soldiers.
Outcome and assessment:
- Strategically costly with limited territorial gains; Haig’s decision to proceed generated debate about tactical prudence.

6. WAR AT SEA AND GALLIPOLI

4. THE WAR AT SEA

Strategic importance of sea control:
- Britain: protect mercantile shipping and maintain empire; blockade Germany to starve its industry.
- Germany: challenge British sea power with U-boats to cut off British supply lines.
Key naval engagements and changes:
- Heligoland Bight (Aug 28, 1914): British victory; limited, but signaled that neither side could easily achieve a knockout on the sea.
- Dogger Bank (Jan 1915): British victory; German squadron attacked, but British forces prevented major loss.
- Jutland (May 31–June 1, 1916): the largest sea battle; tactically inconclusive, strategically a British failure to decisively defeat the German High Seas Fleet; Britain maintained control of the North Sea after battle.
Anti-U-boat measures and convoy system:
- Mines, depth charges, and later convoy systems significantly reduced U-boat effectiveness by 1918.
- Q-ships and improved antisubmarine tactics contributed to reducing German success.
Lusitania sinking (May 7, 1915):
- German U-boat U-20 torpedoed the liner Lusitania; ~ $1{,}198$ passengers and crew lost; brought U.S. brinkmanship and eventual entry into the war.
- Controversy over whether the sinking was legitimate; debates about warnings and the presence of war materials on board.

4.2 THE GERMAN THREAT FROM THE NORTH SEA AND 4.3 THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN

The Gallipoli Campaign (Feb 1915–Jan 1916):
- Churchill’s plan to force a sea route to Russia through the Dardanelles; naval bombardment followed by landings (Anzac Cove, Cape Helles, Sulva Bay).
- Key features: 18 battleships supported by ground troops; heavy losses; terrain and cliffside defenses strong; evacuation conducted December 1915–January 1916 with limited Allied casualties relative to total commitment.
- Outcomes and significance: the campaign failed to break the deadlock on the Western Front; diverted Allied resources from main theatres; had significant political consequences for Churchill and allied governments.

7. THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY (1918)

5.1 LUDENDORFF OFFENSIVE, SPRING 1918 (Operation Michael)

Context:
- Germany sought a decisive victory before the full force of American troops could arrive; Allied forces had to be redirected and restructured.
Actions and tactics:
- 21 March 1918: massive preliminary bombardment with mustard gas; stormtrooper tactics to break through gaps in the trenches.
- Initial success: German forces penetrated Allied lines, advancing to within ~ $65 ext{ km}$ of Paris; significant gains by summer 1918.
- Resource and supply issues: fuel and ammunition shortages; long supply lines; German reserves insufficient to sustain deep advances.
Allied response and turning point:
- Arrival of fresh American troops (~ $2 imes 10^6$ by Armistice) and reorganization under General Foch’s command; coordinated Allied counter-offensives.

5.2 THE ALLIED DRIVE TO VICTORY (Hundred Days, Aug–Nov 1918)

Key sequence:
- Aug 8, 1918: Amiens offensive uses a creeping barrage and combined arms; rapid gains force German retreat.
- Aug–Nov 1918: Series of offensives across the Western Front push German lines back to the Hindenburg Line and beyond; the Allied advance accelerates.
- By November 11, 1918: Armistice signed; German government collapsed; Kaiser abdicated (Nov 9–28, 1918).
Role of the United States:
- US entry into the war (April 1917) and sustained troop contributions; by Armistice nearly 2 million American troops in Europe; logistical support (railways, ports, telecommunication) and substantial combat contributions.
Technological and tactical shifts:
- Coordinated artillery and infantry; improved air reconnaissance; tanks became more operational by 1918; combined-arms strategy contributed to breaking German lines.

8. THE REASONS FOR GERMANY'S DEFEAT

6.1 FOOD, FAMINE, AND FLU; POLITICAL TURMOIL; MILITARY DEFEAT

Factors contributing to defeat:
- Food shortages and famine within Germany due to Allied blockade and disruption of agriculture; severe hunger and reliance on imports, which were blocked; the 1918 influenza pandemic exacerbated civilian and military suffering.
- Political turmoil at home: revolts and strikes (Kiel mutiny, Munich and Berlin unrest) led to the collapse of the German war effort; Kaiser abdication and new government formed.
- Military factors: Ludendorff Offensive overstretched German resources; Allied counter-offensives and the US entry overwhelmed German capabilities; strategic failures across multiple fronts.
Key data points:
- 1918 influenza pandemic caused huge civilian casualties globally; in Germany, thousands died and morale plummeted; blockade and famine intensified civil unrest.
- Allied Hundred Days Offensive and the breaking of the Hindenburg Line forced German retreat and capitulation.
Consequences:
- Germany’s surrender and the subsequent peace negotiations that defined the post-war settlement.

9. EXAM-STYLE THEMES AND KEY QUESTIONS (REVIEW)

Short-term vs long-term causes of the war:
- Short-term trigger: assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Sarajevo, June 1914).
- Long-term causes: alliance system; imperial and economic rivalries; naval arms race; Balkan nationalism; Moroccan crises; Plan/preparedness debates.
How the war evolved from a continental conflict to a global one:
- The alliance system transformed local crises into larger confrontations; British entry after invasion of Belgium; US entry due to submarine warfare and political pressure.
The interplay between technology and strategy:
- From rapid manoeuvres and invasions to trench warfare; introduction of tanks, aircraft, gas, and the creeping barrage; impact on casualty rates and the length of the war.
The human dimension:
- Civilians faced shortages and disease; soldiers endured “shell shock,” trench life, and the moral questions about casualties and leadership.

SUMMARY OF KEY TAKEAWAYS

The alliance system and imperial rivalries created a precarious balance of power; a local crisis could escalate into a world war due to entangling alliances and mobilization plans. $ext{Two blocs: Central Powers vs. Entente}$
The Moroccan crises (1905–06, 1911–12) and Balkan crises (1908–09, 1912–13) demonstrated how imperial and national ambitions could destabilize Europe and increase great-power tensions.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the immediate trigger, but underlying structural tensions made war likely by 1914.
The Schlieffen Plan aimed to avoid a two-front war but failed due to Belgian resistance, French defences, and Russian mobilisation, leading to a prolonged Western Front stalemate.
Trench warfare defined the Western Front: deadly stalemate, mud, disease, and new weapons altering but not decisively breaking the front.
Naval warfare and the U-boat threat shaped Britain’s strategy; the Lusitania sinking shifted U.S. opinions and helped push the United States toward entering the war.
The Allied victory hinged on a combination of manpower, new tactics (creeping barrage, combined-arms operations), and the influx of American forces; the Hundred Days Offensive in 1918 marked the turning point toward victory.
The German war effort collapsed under a combination of military overstretch, civilian famine, political revolution, and Allied pressure, culminating in the Armistice on 11 November 1918.

$ext{Key dates to remember:}$

$1905-06$ , $1907$ , $1908-09$ , $1911-12$ , $1912-13$ , $1914$ , $1916$ , $1917$ , $1918$
$8 ext{ Aug 1918}$ : start of the Hundred Days Offensive
$11 ext{ Nov 1918}$ : Armistice