Unit 1

Reference Maps

• A reference map shows the locations of physical (mountains, rivers, coastlines) and political (official boundaries of countries, states, cities) features, serving as a comprehensive tool for geographical understanding.

• Example: World map in classrooms, Thomas guides, road maps showing highways and streets.

Thematic Maps

• Thematic maps display spatial patterns of places and quantitative data (numerical figures related to population density, income levels, etc.), focusing on a specific theme or subject area.

Types of Thematic Maps

• Chloropleth Map:

  • A thematic map that uses shades of colors to show data, with darker shades typically representing higher values.

  • Example: Hispanic Population Density, showing persons per square kilometer, income distribution by county.

• Cartogram:

  • A thematic map where the greatest value is represented by the largest area, distorting the geographical size to emphasize a specific variable.

  • Example: A cartogram where California, Texas, and Florida are the three largest states based on electoral votes, population, or GDP.

• Isoline Maps:

  • A thematic map using lines to connect points of equal value across a geographic area, often used to represent continuous phenomena.

  • Example: January temperature map using lines to connect areas with the same temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, topographic maps showing elevation.

Map Scale

• Small-Scale Map:

  • Shows more of the Earth’s surface (strength), typically with a larger representative fraction (e.g., 1:10,000,000), but has less detailed data (weakness).

  • Example: Global map showing continents and oceans.

Scale of Analysis

• Observation of data in a map at the global, national (country), regional (continents, US states, provinces), or local scale (county). The scale of analysis affects the patterns and insights that can be observed.

• Key Question: What is the unit of area that is presented by the data? Understanding this helps determine the appropriate scale of analysis.

• Example:

  • Map type: Chloropleth

  • Map scale: National

  • Scale of analysis: Regional (provincial)

• Example:

  • A map with a global scale of analysis, such as climate maps showing worldwide temperature patterns.

Geographic Data

Ways Geographers Gather Data

1. Geospatial Technology

• A. Remote Sensing:

  • Gathering data through sensors/photos (satellites - 22,000 miles!, drones, airplanes) without making contact. This allows for broad and continuous data collection.

  • Application: Land use change, monitoring farms, tracking deforestation, urban expansion.

  • Example: Satellite images showing flooding after Hurricane Katrina (before and after comparison), monitoring the growth of the Amazon rainforest.

• B. GIS (Geographic Information System):

  • Combines hardware and software to create super-accurate maps with different layers to survey an area, facilitating spatial analysis and decision-making.

  • Rapidly growing college program with applications in urban planning, environmental science, and disaster management.

  • Uses:

  • Location of remaining natural resources over time, such as oil reserves or mineral deposits.

  • Where to open the next Chipotle, optimizing location based on demographics and competition.

  • Appropriate site for new military base, considering strategic and environmental factors.

  • Composite overlay example: Topographic base, remotely sensed image, land ownership, hydrology, forest cover, soils, zoning regulations.

• C. Satellite Navigation Systems (Like Global Positioning System (GPS)):

  • Precise location data accurate to within a few meters, enabling precise navigation and tracking.

  • Primary purpose: Automated vehicles, precision agriculture, surveying.

  • Surveillance? Raises privacy concerns due to the ability to track movements.

  • Limitations of Geospatial Tech: Missing human processes, such as cultural practices or social interactions.

2. Quantitative Census Data (& other gov’t reports)

• Every 10 years in the US, providing detailed demographic and economic information.

• Capital Intensive – $16 billion$ (2020), reflecting the scale and complexity of the undertaking.

• Why part of Constitution? To ensure fair representation.

  • Reallocate House of Rep. #s based on population changes.

  • Gov’t funding is often allocated based on census data.

• Problems: Undercounting of minority populations, data accuracy issues.

3. Surveys/Questionnaires

• Used to collect data on attitudes, behaviors, and socio-economic characteristics.

• Potential problems/biases:

  • Who paid for the survey? This can influence the results.

  • Was the sampling random and representative? Ensuring the sample reflects the population is crucial.

  • How many were surveyed? A larger sample size generally increases accuracy (+/- 3% accuracy).

  • How were the questions phrased? Leading questions can bias responses.

4. Qualitative Data

• Data that is based on people’s opinions, experiences, and interpretations.

• Fieldwork, field studies, travel narratives, interviews, photographic interpretation provide rich contextual information.

• Understand human processes better, uncovering nuances not captured by quantitative data.

• Culture (lang, religion, food, dress, etc.) reveals the diversity of human societies.

• Politics (government, conflict, organization of space, etc.) shapes the spatial distribution of power.

• Economics (valuation of goods and services, social classes, etc.) influences access to resources and opportunities.

• Limitations? Observer bias can affect the interpretation of data.

GIS vs GPS

• GPS (Global Positioning System):

  • Tool used to find exact location on the planet via satellite, expressed in Latitude and Longitude coordinates.

• GIS (Geographical Information Systems):

  • Lets us visualize, question, analyze, interpret, and understand data to reveal relationships, patterns, and trends.

  • Uses layers of information to create a complete picture, allowing for comprehensive spatial analysis.

  • Examples of layers: Topography, transportation systems, gas & electric systems, water & sewer systems, telecommunications systems, land ROW systems, vegetation, hydrology, subsurface, zoning, demographics.

How GPS Works:

• The Earth is continually circled by 24 GPS satellites. At least four are always visible from any one point, ensuring continuous coverage.

• Your GPS receiver listens for signals which give the satellites' location and the exact time of sending. Precise atomic clocks on the satellites ensure accuracy.

• Triangulation then gives your latitude and longitude to within 10m. Differential GPS can improve accuracy to within centimeters.

Globalization

• Definition: The expansion of economic, cultural, and political processes and interactions on a worldwide scale; increased interconnectedness and interdependence between countries, fostering a global marketplace and cultural exchange.

• Factors contributing to globalization:

  • Lower production costs incentivize companies to move manufacturing to countries with cheaper labor.

  • Advances in transportation technology reduce the cost and time of moving goods around the world.

  • The rise of the internet and social media apps facilitates communication and information sharing across borders.

  • Trade deals and government policies favorable to trade, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

• Flow - the movement of people (migration), goods (trade), and ideas (cultural diffusion).

Distance Decay vs. Time-Space Compression

• Distance decay: The farther away one thing is from another, the less interaction the two things will have. This is due to increased transportation costs and communication barriers.

• Time–space compression: Describes the shrinking of relative distance between places due to advances in transportation and communication, making the world feel smaller and more interconnected.

Wallerstein’s World System Theory

• Theory describing the relationships between countries in the world economy, dividing countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on their roles in the global economy.

Core Countries (MDCs)

• Has wealth, powerful military, stable government, advanced technology, and infrastructure. They control global trade and extract resources from periphery countries.

• Examples: USA, UK, Germany, Japan, Canada, Australia.

Semi-Periphery Countries

• Industrializing, still developing, provide manufactured goods and services to both core and periphery countries. They often have growing economies and increasing political influence.

• Examples: China, India, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, Russia.

Periphery Countries

• Less wealth, lower education levels, unstable governments. They primarily export raw materials and agricultural products to core countries and often face exploitation and dependency.

• Examples: The majority of countries in sub-Saharan Africa - Sudan, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, Bangladesh, Afghanistan.

Globalization and Sustainability

• Sustainability: In 2015, the United Nations launched its 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with 17 goals to increase peace, freedom, and prosperity around the world, addressing issues such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation.

• Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It includes:

  • Consideration of the availability of natural resources, ensuring they are not depleted faster than they can be replenished.

  • Innovations to make better use of renewable resources, such as solar, wind, and hydropower, to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

  • Efforts to reduce pollution and waste through recycling, waste management, and cleaner industrial processes.

Spatial Concepts

• Consider how people, places, and objects are arranged in an area (spatial analysis). Spatial analysis is used to understand patterns, relationships, and trends in geographic data.

  • Are they arranged closely together (clustered) or far apart (dispersed)? Why? Understanding the factors influencing spatial distribution is key.

• Three types of distribution: concentration, pattern, density, each providing insights into the arrangement of objects in space.

• Space: The area between two objects, which can influence interaction and accessibility.

• Concentration: The extent of the spread of an object (clustered or dispersed). Clustered distributions indicate proximity, while dispersed distributions suggest separation.

• Density: The number of objects in an area. High density can indicate overcrowding, while low density may suggest isolation.

• Pattern: How objects are arranged geometrically in an area (linear, circular, etc.). Patterns can reveal underlying processes or factors influencing spatial arrangement.

Site vs. Situation

• Site: A place’s absolute location and physical features (climate, landforms, soil, vegetation). Site characteristics can influence human activities and development.

  • Example: Katy is located in a sub-tropical zone with flat terrain. The Brazos River flows through Katy, providing water resources.

• Situation: Location of a place in relation to other places. Situation influences accessibility and connectivity.

  • Example: Katy is located closer to Houston than Brookshire, making it well-connected to a major metropolitan area. Like Sugar Land, Katy is a suburb of Houston, benefiting from economic opportunities. Bangkok is the most visited city in the world due to its strategic location and cultural attractions.

Sense of Place vs. Placelessness

• Sense of place: Feelings and memories that are associated with a place, giving it unique meaning and significance. This is often tied to personal experiences and cultural values.

• Placelessness: When a place loses its unique identity or distinctiveness due to the influence of globalization and popular culture. A city becomes ordinary to a person since nothing stands out, lacking unique characteristics.

Toponyms

• Definition: A place name, often reflecting the history, culture, or physical environment of a location.

• Examples: Houston (named after Sam Houston), Germany (from Germanic tribes), Great Lakes (large freshwater lakes), Great Smoky Mountains (due to natural fog).

• All toponyms have a background story, revealing historical or cultural significance.

Regions

• Definition: An area with common physical or human characteristics, used to organize and analyze geographic space.

Formal / Uniform Region

• An area with a common attribute that is found throughout the region, and has well-defined boundaries. There is official consensus and it is measurable, such as climate, political boundaries, or economic activity.

• Examples: Texas (official state of the US), Japan (official country), Rust Belt (US states where steel is manufactured), Gulf Coast (states that touch the Gulf of Mexico), North America (USA, Canada, Mexico).

Perceptual / Vernacular Region

• A type of region that reflects people’s attitudes and opinions of a place, no official consensus. Boundaries are often fuzzy and based on perception rather than objective criteria.

• Examples: The Middle East (include N African countries?), everyone in Texas wears cowboy boots and loves football, good salsa cannot be made in Northern US, etc.

Functional / Nodal Region

• An area organized by its function around a focal point / center (node). The region is connected through transportation, communication, or economic activity.

• Examples: Houston metropolitan area, a cell tower and the area that it gives off a signal to, a network of subway stations with a center, an airport and its departing flights.

Map Distortions

• Maps are distorted because transferring a three-dimensional object (globe) to a flat two-dimensional surface (projections) introduces inaccuracies. All map projections are distorted to a certain extent in terms of shape, area, distance, or direction.

Map Projections

• Mercator projection (1569):

  • Advantage: Uninterrupted, useful for maritime navigation because it preserves angles and shapes locally.

  • Disadvantage: Landmass distortions. Example: Greenland is 1/14 the size of Africa, exaggerating areas closer to the poles.

• Robinson projection:

  • Advantage: More accurate depictions of landmasses, globe-like appearance, visually appealing for general use.

  • Disadvantage: Distortions at the top and bottom of the map, not equal-area, compromising accuracy in area and shape.

• Gall-Peters projection:

  • Advantage: Accurate depictions of landmasses, uninterrupted, emphasizing accurate representation of area.

  • Disadvantage: Distortions at the top and bottom of the map, not equal-area, shapes are distorted to preserve area.

• Azimuthal projection:

  • Advantage: Unique perspective, distance from the center of the map (North Pole) to any location on the map is accurate, useful for navigation and mapping polar regions.

  • Disadvantage: Distortions in regards to Africa, Australia is non-existent, significant distortion of shape and area away from the center.

• Goode-Homolosine projection:

  • Advantage: Accurate landmass depictions, minimizes distortion of landmasses by interrupting the oceans.

  • Disadvantage: Interrupted, not useful for navigation, difficult to use for general purposes due to interruptions.

Absolute vs Relative Location

• Absolute location: The exact location of a place – latitude, longitude coordinates, or address, providing a precise point on the Earth's surface.

  • Example: Absolute location of Katy Mills Mall – 29.784674°N, -95.8018949°W, 5000 Katy Mills Cir, Katy, TX 77494.

• Relative location: The description of where a place is in relation to other places, using landmarks, transportation routes, or proximity to other locations.

  • Example: Relative location of Katy Mills Mall – located next to Typhoon Texas.

Absolute vs Relative Distance

• Absolute distance: The exact distance between two places or objects, measured in standard units such as miles or kilometers.

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