1) Depth Study Russia 1894 to 1905

Background

I. Russia before 1917

  • 1905: Russia = huge, mainly agricultural & backward country.

  • Industry weak, most people poor, uneducated.

  • Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II (absolute power).

In 1905, Russia was a huge empire but still very backward compared to other countries. It was mainly agricultural, with industry underdeveloped and most people poor and uneducated. The country was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II, who held absolute power and faced the challenge of ruling such a vast population.

II. 1917 Turning Points

  • March 1917: Tsar overthrown.

  • November 1917: Bolsheviks take power.

  • Later, Stalin builds modern industrial superpower.

The Tsar’s rule came to an end in March 1917 when he was overthrown. Later, in November of the same year, the Bolsheviks seized power and took control of Russia. These events marked the start of major change, as over the following decades Stalin transformed Russia into a modern industrial state and one of the world’s superpowers.

III. Nicholas II

  • 1894: Became Tsar, called “Little Father of Russia.”

  • 1917: Removed and imprisoned with family.

Nicholas II became Tsar in 1894 and was celebrated as the “Little Father of Russia.” However, by 1917 he and his family were imprisoned after losing power. Commentators had predicted the collapse of Tsarism long before 1917, suggesting it was a surprise that Nicholas managed to remain in power as long as he did. The central problem was that one man was attempting to rule such a vast and troubled empire, making collapse almost inevitable.

IV. Weakness of Tsarism

  • Predicted collapse long before 1917.

  • Key issue: One man ruling a vast, troubled empire.

Russian Leaders & Key Dates

  • Tsar Nicholas II: 1894 – March 1917

    • Led Russia into WWI (1914–1917) → abdicated during the February/March Revolution 1917.

  • Provisional Government: March – November 1917

    • Temporary government after the Tsar abdicated.

    • Continued the war → very unpopular.

  • Vladimir Lenin (Bolsheviks/Communists): November 1917 – 1924

    • Took power in October/November Revolution 1917.

    • Ended WWI for Russia in March 1918 (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).

    • Led during Russian Civil War (1918–1921).

  • Joseph Stalin: 1928 – 1953

    • Came to full power after Lenin’s death (1924) by defeating rivals (esp. Trotsky).

    • Was in charge during WWII (1939–1945).

Timeline of the Tsar Nicolas II

  1. 1905: The Tsar survives an attempted revolution

  2. 1914:

    • Mar: The Tsar abdicates

    • Oct: The Bolsheviks take power

  3. 1920: The Bolsheviks win the Civil War

  4. 1924: Lenin dies

  5. 1928: Stalin launches the first Five-Year Plan

  6. 1934: Stalin begins the Porges

  7. 1941: ‘The Great Patriotic War’ begins when Hitler invades the USSR

Factors affecting the security of the Tsarist state before 1905:

  1. Revolutionary ideas

  2. Oppressive Tsarist policies

  3. Controlling the state before 1905

  4. Oppressive State infrastructure

  5. Corruption of ministers

Background to the Russian Empire

Geography & Size

  • Late 1800s: Largest country in the world.

  • Stretched from Black Sea (Europe) to Bering Straits (Asia).

In the late 1800s, Russia was the largest country in the world. Its empire stretched across two continents, from the Black Sea in Europe to the Bering Straits in far eastern Asia. Governing such a vast and diverse territory was a constant challenge for the Tsarist regime.

Population & Diversity

  • ~100 million people.

  • Half = ethnic Russians; rest = Germans, Poles, Slavs, Asians.

  • Almost all major religions represented.

Russia’s population was around 100 million, with about half being ethnic Russians. The rest were made up of Germans, Poles, Slavs, and Asians. Almost every major religion could be found across the empire, making it one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse countries in the world.

Backwardness

  • Politically, socially, economically behind Western Europe.

  • Little industry, most = peasant farmers.

  • Agriculture unchanged since Middle Ages.

  • Majority illiterate.

  • Many still serfs under wealthy landowners.

Despite its size, Russia lagged far behind Western Europe in politics, society, and the economy. Industry was very limited, and most people were peasant farmers working in an outdated agricultural system little changed since medieval times. The majority of the population were illiterate, and many peasants still lived as serfs, tied to the land and under the control of wealthy landowners.

Tsarist Methods of Control – State Infrastructure

I. Autocracy

  • Tsars ruled alone, believed in divine right

  • Absolute power, no shared government

II. The Nobility

  • ~10% of population; owned land, dependent on Tsar

  • Controlled army & civil service

  • Officials appointed and paid by Tsar, loyal because power = from him

III. The Law

  • Legal system supported autocracy

  • Suppressed opposition; punishment = exile to Siberia

  • No elected parliament; no legal ways to challenge Tsar

IV. The Okhrana

  • Secret police: spied on enemies, arrested threats

  • Agents worked undercover, infiltrating groups

  • Acted on Tsar’s behalf; methods included torture and murder

V. The Army

  • Large army enforced Tsar’s power

  • Tsar = supreme commander, deployed units at will

  • Cossacks used to suppress unrest: Rostov (1902), Odessa (1903)

VI. The Orthodox Church

  • Tsar = head of the Church, Church reinforced his authority.

  • Official doctrine: Tsar appointed by God; challenging him = insult to God.

  • Church influential among peasants; priests taught that Russia = God’s land and life should remain as it was.

  • Church received financial rewards from the Tsar for spreading this message.

  • Most peasants illiterate, relied on priests for education → believed teachings.

  • However, priests were often seen as corrupt and hypocritical, reducing respect for the Church under Nicholas II.

Summary paragraph:
The Tsar maintained control through autocracy, the nobility, law, secret police, the orthodox Church and the army. Opposition was suppressed through exile, surveillance, and military force. Institutions and officials were loyal because their power came directly from the Tsar.

Difficulties in Governing the Tsarist State

  • Tsar’s power limited by the vast size of the empire.

  • Corruption and incompetence among ministers and officials weakened control.

  • Revolutionary ideas were increasing.

The Tsar’s power was limited by the sheer size of the Russian Empire and the corruption and incompetence of his ministers and officials. In addition, revolutionary ideas were spreading, creating further challenges for the government.

I. Size of the Empire

  • Far-flung corners often ungovernable.

  • Poor infrastructure and nature of population limited opposition.

  • Majority = illiterate peasant farmers, hard to spread ideas via books/pamphlets.

  • Peasants lived in remote, dispersed villages, difficult to unite.

  • Poor roads and railways made communication and spread of ideas slow.

The vast size of the Russian Empire made some areas difficult to govern, but also limited the growth of opposition. Most people were illiterate peasants living in remote villages, so liberal or revolutionary ideas spread slowly. Poor roads and railways further hindered communication and organisation, making it hard for peasants to unite against the Tsar.

II. Revolutionary Ideas

  • Tsar’s unlimited power meant opposition could only come through rebellion.

  • Liberal groups: wanted middle class to have political influence; inspired by Western Europe’s constitutional governments.

  • Radical groups: carried out political assassinations; populism existed in universities; People’s Will tried to kill Alexander III (1887).

  • 1903–1904: Years of the Red Cockerel → peasants seized land in the countryside.

  • Marxism introduced in late 1800s → promoted power for the masses; inspired revolutionary groups.

  • Social Revolutionaries: combined Marxist + Populist ideas; wanted power for peasants; uncoordinated but carried out ~2,000 assassinations before 1905 Revolution.

  • Social Democrats: based on Marxism; focused on workers in cities.

    • Mensheviks (Martov): revolution should occur naturally from below.

    • Bolsheviks (Lenin): revolution should happen ASAP; small group rules first (dictatorship of the proletariat) until workers ready.

Opposition to Tsarist autocracy grew because the Tsar refused reforms and ignored poor living conditions. Liberals wanted the middle class to gain political influence, inspired by Western Europe’s constitutional governments. Radical groups carried out political assassinations, and populist ideas spread in universities; for example, the People’s Will attempted to assassinate Alexander III in 1887. During 1903–1904, known as the Years of the Red Cockerel, peasants seized land in the countryside. Marxist ideas, promoting power for the masses, influenced revolutionary groups. The Social Revolutionaries combined Marxist and Populist beliefs, aiming to give power to peasants and carried out around 2,000 assassinations before 1905. The Social Democrats focused on urban workers and split in 1903: the Mensheviks (Martov) wanted a natural revolution from below, while the Bolsheviks (Lenin) believed revolution should happen immediately, with power held by a small group until workers could govern themselves.

III. Corruption and Incompetence

  • Russian civil service was backward and self-interested.

  • Poor pay led to widespread bribery among officials.

  • Persuasive civil servants could influence Nicholas II, who was indecisive.

  • Promotion often based on years of service, not competence.

  • Many bureaucrats did not understand industrialisation or its importance.

  • Taxation was hard to organise across the vast empire → government income often inadequate.

At the turn of the century, the Russian civil service was backward and self-interested. Many officials were poorly paid, which encouraged bribery, and Nicholas II’s indecisiveness allowed persuasive civil servants to influence decisions. Promotions were based more on years of service than ability, and many bureaucrats lacked understanding of industrialisation. The vast size of the empire made taxation difficult to organise and enforce, meaning government income was often insufficient.

Tsarist methods of control - policies

I. Censorship

  • Widespread; freedom of speech was severely restricted.

  • Books and newspapers promoting liberal or socialist ideas were banned.

  • Circulating banned material risked detection by the Okhrana.

II. Russification

  • Policy of enforcing Russian culture on ethnic minorities (Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians).

  • Russian = official language; other languages suppressed.

  • Russian Orthodoxy promoted; Catholic monasteries closed or converted.

  • Black Hundreds: extreme nationalist group supporting Tsar; assassinated pro-democratic politicians, intimidated workers.

III. Terror and Exile

  • Okhrana spread fear through spying and infiltration of political groups.

  • Suspicious individuals had no right to trial; could be sentenced immediately.

  • Political prisoners often exiled to Siberia.

The Tsar maintained control through strict policies of censorship, Russification, and terror. Freedom of speech was severely limited, and books or newspapers promoting liberal or socialist ideas were banned, with the Okhrana monitoring anyone distributing them. Russification enforced Russian language and culture on minorities such as Poles, Ukrainians, and Lithuanians, while Russian Orthodoxy replaced Catholic institutions. During Nicholas II’s reign, the extreme nationalist Black Hundreds supported the Tsar by assassinating pro-democratic politicians and intimidating workers. Fear of the Okhrana was widespread, as its spies infiltrated political groups, and opponents of the state had no right to trial, with many exiled to Siberia.