Notes on American Expansion, Imperialism, and the Progressive Era

Foundations and context for U.S. expansion

• The lecture opens with a correction about McKinley’s Civil War service, illustrating a culture of accuracy and the host’s self-awareness about factual details.
• Context: why expansion happened and what foundations drove American expansionism. The Monroe Doctrine sits as a foundational policy in early 19th-century thinking:
  • 1823: The United States would be "supreme in the Western Hemisphere" and European powers should stay out. 1823
  • The policy aimed to deter European interference as independent movements swept across the Americas.
  • A major limitation was the lack of naval power to enforce it early on.
• The policy framed American thinking about hemisphere affairs for decades, including interventionist attitudes during later crises.
• Theme: a long-standing tension between ideals (liberty, self-determination) and strategic imperial interests (markets, naval bases, and regional influence).

Samoa and the Pacific: early imperial footprints

• The Germans show interest in Samoa; naval moves offshore and attempts to negotiate with the Samoan king fail.
• The Germans declare victory and establish a colony; the United States and Britain press Germany over Samoa.
• The Samoa question is resolved through division among powers; the Samoan people were not asked for their consent.
• Today, the United States maintains American Samoa; thus, the U.S. still has a Pacific presence there.
• The Samoa case demonstrates early 19th–century imperial competition in the Pacific and foreshadows later U.S. expansion, including to Hawaii.

Hawaii: missionaries, plantations, and strategic harbor

• Early American involvement in Hawaii begins with missionaries and traders (from the 1820s onward).
• Hula dancing was banned by some Americans as a sign of cultural suppression; the term means a wave or the sea in Hawaiians’ tradition (common misinterpretation by outsiders).
• Americans establish plantations (sugar and pineapples); Dole emerges as a major landowner and political actor.
• Immigration reshapes Hawaii: Japanese, Filipinos, and Chinese workers fill plantation labor demands; by 1890, Hawaiians become a minority in their own country due to immigration and plantation labor.
• Pearl Harbor becomes a critical harbor; in the 1870s, the U.S. secures a foothold there for trade and military leverage.
• Political change: Queen Liliʻuokalani ascends and attempts to restore native governance; the American-backed planters revolt and install a republic—Dole becomes president after the 1894 revolution.
• The U.S. effect on Hawaii escalates, but annexation stalls in Washington; President Grover Cleveland opposes unilateral annexation in 1893–1894, citing prior issues and the need for restraint.
• Eventually Hawaii becomes an American entity (republic in 1894) and then an official U.S. territory; the path culminates in modern statehood years later.
• A late-20th-century retrospective: 1993—President George H. W. Bush signs a proclamation apologizing for the annexation, acknowledging past wrongs.
• Significance: Hawaii’s case illustrates how economic interests (sugar, pineapple) and strategic military positioning (Pearl Harbor) intersected with political maneuvering and territorial expansion.

The Monroe Doctrine, 1820s–1830s: ideological foundation and limits

• The Enrolled Doctrine (Monroe Doctrine) states the Western Hemisphere would be free of European colonization and interference; it framed U.S. policy for nearly a century and a half.
• In the early 19th century, the U.S. lacked a navy to enforce the doctrine, so it relied on moral suasion and diplomacy rather than military power.
• The doctrine created a long-standing push towards hemispheric influence, foreshadowing later actions where the U.S. would intervene more directly in the Caribbean and Pacific.
• The broader lesson: American expansionism often blended aspirational democracy with strategic interests in markets, security, and regional influence.

The era of yellow journalism and the path to war with Spain

• Two titans of the press—Joseph Pulitzer (New York) and William Randolph Hearst (California)—dominate this era and coin the term yellow journalism due to sensational, sometimes lurid reporting and the use of inexpensive yellow paper. They pursued scoops to sell papers and shape public opinion.
• Pulitzer sends Stephen Crane and a young journalist to Cuba; Hearst sends illustrator Frederick Remington. Remington’s reporting includes claims that intervention is needed, aided by sensational illustrations.
• The press uses dramatic language to depict Spanish atrocities and Cuban suffering, including phrases about blood and the brutalities of war, to pressure readers and policymakers.
• Eva Cisneros becomes a symbol of manipulation and sensationalism: Hearst-funded journalists allegedly secure Eva’s release from jail, parade her in Madison Square Garden to illustrate Spanish tyranny.
• Remington’s illustration depicts Spaniards assaulting women on American ships; the press frames Cuba as a humanitarian crisis requiring intervention.
• The press culture questions what a newspaper is: a device capable of shaping public perception—hinting at the blurred lines between journalism and propaganda.
• Immediate consequences: pressure on President McKinley and the U.S. Congress to respond to Cuban humanitarian concerns and Spanish actions, culminating in war rhetoric.

The USS Maine and the rise of war fever

• The Maine is sent to Havana to protect Americans; it explodes in Havana Harbor, killing 250 sailors.
• Public sentiment blames Spain; a commission later cannot determine the cause due to limited technology of the time. It would take eleven years before better underwater exploration techniques could systematically assess the vessel.
• The explosion becomes a catalyst for war fever and a compounding factor in the decision to declare war on Spain.
• The speech and rhetoric during this period fuse humanitarian concerns with strategic ambitions; the line between moral justification and imperial ambition becomes blurred in public discourse.

The Spanish-American War (1898): quick triumph and imperial overreach

• McKinley, pressured by domestic and foreign voices, asks Congress for a declaration of war; Congress declares war on April 11, 1898. This marks a turning point: the United States, for the first time, fights a major European power’s imperial holdings through conventional war.
• The war is described as a conflict that unites the North and South and demonstrates the vitality of a modern, youthful American democracy—often framed as superior to monarchies.
• Command and theater: McKinley’s forces are commanded from abroad; Admiral Dewey leads the Pacific squadron and destroys the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in a swift operation.
• The war has a strong, mixed domestic impact: it is framed as a “splendid little war” by Theodore Roosevelt and others; yet it is a war with significant costs and controversial imperial implications.
• Casualties and costs: approximately 386 American military deaths (and additional immigrant casualties) in Cuba and the Philippines; battles are short, but disease and logistics pose challenges.
• The war’s expansionist outcomes: Spain cedes control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines following the Paris Peace Conference; the U.S. emerges as an empire with new overseas territories.
• The war also reveals racial tensions within the U.S. military: African American troops, including “buffalo soldiers,” play critical roles in Cuba but face Jim Crow-era backlash in the southern states.
• The U.S. Navy’s rapid victories (e.g., Manila) demonstrate the importance of sea power to American strategic aims.

The Paris treaty and the birth of the American empire

• The peace conference in Paris results in terms that include: Cuba’s rebuilding aid from Spain, independence for Cuba, and the cession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.
• The treaty marks the United States’ emergence as an overseas empire—an abrupt expansion beyond continental boundaries.
• A common reframing in class discussions: the empire’s birth is celebrated for national strength and global stature, but criticized for violating constitutional norms and for the ethical implications of colonizing other peoples.
• The Philippines becomes a focal point of intense debate between imperialists and anti-imperialists, setting up a protracted conflict (1899–1921) and a controversial chapter in U.S. history.

The Great Debate: imperialism, ethics, and constitutional questions

• Pro-imperialists argue for strategic advantages (navy bases, markets), business interests, and religious-cultural missions (
  • Teddy Roosevelt and Elvin Thayer are cited as advocates of expansionism and naval power).
  • Business leaders see the Philippines as a site for commerce and influence in Southeast Asia and China.
  • Religious arguments claim a mission to “civilize” and Christianize in line with broader Western narratives.
• Anti-imperialists resist empire on several fronts:
  • Constitutional concerns: does ownership of overseas territories align with the Constitution and the rights of the inhabitants?
  • Rights and representation: would Filipinos become American citizens; would they receive civil rights?
  • Cost concerns: who pays for infrastructure, schools, and governance in new territories? How would immigration affect American labor markets?
  • Notable opponents include Jane Addams (social reformer) and Andrew Carnegie (industrial magnate who offered to buy the territories to avoid annexation, signaling deep concerns about cost and rights).
• The debate culminates in a decision to seek annexation for strategic and economic reasons, influenced by a mix of moral rhetoric and pragmatic calculations. The sentiment — “outlive and civilize them” — is attributed to a president’s line about the Philippines, used to justify imperial policy despite constitutional and ethical concerns.
• Aftermath: the Philippines experiences guerrilla warfare from 1899 to 1921; the United States uses concentration camps and water-torture techniques in counterinsurgency, generating controversy and laying groundwork for future debates about American governance in overseas territories.
• Independence timeline: the Philippines finally achieves formal independence in 1946; Cuba’s independence occurs in the early 20th century (with U.S. troops and influence continuing in the period after the war).

The Progressive Era and the United States in 1900: social, political, and economic snapshots

• The era’s core idea: progressives seek to fix societal problems by reforming governance and institutions to improve the lives of the majority of citizens. They are the “muckrakers” who expose social ills and push for reform.
• The 1892 Populist platform provides early foundations for reform, linking agricultural and urban concerns with broader social justice aims.
• Immediate problems that spark reform include:
  • Child labor: in 1900, around 2{,}000{,}000 children under the age of 16 were employed, with kids starting work as young as 11 or 12 and attending school for only about 5 years on average.
  • Education: only about 5 years of schooling on average per child.
  • Juvenile justice: no separate juvenile courts; young offenders treated as adults.
  • Workplace safety: no OSHA or standardized safety codes; dangerous working conditions were common (e.g., factory fires without safe exits).
• The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire becomes a inflection point:
  • A large number of workers (notably women) were trapped on upper floors when a fire broke out; the building lacked adequate fire escapes, leading to fatalities and public outrage.
  • Survivors and families pursued legal action, often receiving small settlements (e.g., a $75 payment to families per deceased worker in some cases).
• The era’s social tensions extend to urban life:
  • The rise of mega-rich monopolies (trusts) and industrial magnates (e.g., Vanderbilt in railroads, Rockefeller in oil, JPMorgan in banking) concentrates wealth and power.
  • By 1900, the U.S. population and economy undergo profound changes: about 75{,}000{,}000 people; 400 millionaires; a small but escalating middle class struggle amid rising inequality.
  • The upper 1% owned more than 50 ext{ percent} of the wealth (specifically of oil production or overall wealth, as described in the lecture).
• Urbanization and living conditions:
  • Cities grow rapidly; urban boundaries lag, creating crowded, unsanitary conditions (e.g., dense housing with poor sanitation, few baths or clean water).
  • Described urban problems included slums, crime, prostitution, and “stockades” such as the one in Salt Lake City; cities faced infrastructure challenges (bread, water, housing, power).
  • A quip about the city’s density: in one block of New York City, around 3{,}000 people lived per block, with only a single bathtub in the block housing.
• The rise of the muckrakers and investigative journalism:
  • Lincoln Steffens (referred to as Lincoln Stan Stephens in the lecture) emerges as a leading muckraker; Sinclair’s The Jungle (Upton Sinclair) exposes unsanitary and exploitative practices in the meatpacking and food industries.
  • The muckrakers use their platforms to push for reform in public health, city planning, and government accountability.
• The broader significance: Progressive reformers aimed to reform the social contract, extend democratic rights, and counterbalance the power of large corporations and monopolies; reform efforts included building codes, worker protections, and social welfare initiatives.

Key people, terms, and turning points to remember

• Notable figures and ideas:
  • McKinley, Roosevelt, and Elvin Thayer as proponents of expansion and naval power; the phrase attributed to McKinley: “outlive and civilize them.”
  • Jane Addams as a leading anti-imperialist advocate focused on social reform at home; Andrew Carnegie as a critic who offered to buy territories to avoid annexation.
  • Theodore Roosevelt’s “splendid little war” framing of the Spanish-American War.
  • Walter Reed and the public health response to yellow fever in Cuba; the development of a yellow fever vaccine.
  • The press titans Pulitzer and Hearst; the concept of yellow journalism; the Remington illustration episodes; Eva Cisneros as a sensational symbol of press influence.
  • The convergence of humanitarian rhetoric and imperial aims in the era’s debates.
• Important dates and milestones (in essay form here for quick recall):
  • 1823: Monroe Doctrine asserts hemispheric influence and European non-intervention.
  • 1893–1894: Hawaiian monarchic government is overthrown and a republic is declared under American influence; eventual path to annexation.
  • April ext{ }11, ext{ }1898: U.S. Congress declares war on Spain.
  • 1898–1899: War with Spain; Dewey’s victory in Manila Bay; Cuban and Philippine campaigns unfold.
  • 1899–1921: Philippine–American War, including counterinsurgency methods and controversial tactics.
  • 1900: Key social indicators reveal a country undergoing rapid industrialization and urbanization (see stats in notes).
  • 1946-07-04: Philippines gains formal independence; Cuba follows earlier transitions in the early 1900s.
  • 1993: U.S. presidential apology for annexation of Hawaii (recognition of past policy mistakes).
  • 1892: Populist Platform as a predecessor to Progressive reform movements.

Connections to broader themes and real-world relevance

• Expansionism was not just about territory but about power, security, and economic access to markets in Asia and the Caribbean. The era blends moral language (civilizing mission, democracy, humanitarian concern) with strategic calculations (naval bases, trade routes, raw materials).
• The Progressive Era’s critique of industrialization and urbanization foreshadows modern debates about regulation, workers’ rights, corporate power, public health, and the role of the state in protecting citizens. The rise of the muckrakers demonstrates how journalism can influence policy and social norms.
• The episodes in Hawaii, Samoa, and the Philippines illustrate the ethical complexity and contested nature of American expansionism: the tension between independence, self-determination, and American strategic interests.
• The legacy of these events continues to shape U.S. foreign policy and domestic reforms, including ongoing debates about imperial power, sovereignty, human rights, and the responsibilities of a global power.

Quick reference: notable numerical anchors from the lecture

• Monroe Doctrine authority and date: 1823
• Pearl Harbor importance and late 19th-century base rotation: 1870s (Pearl Harbor development)
• War with Spain declaration date: ext{April }11, ext{ }1898
• Casualties (U.S. deaths in Spanish-American War): 386
• Population in 1900: 75{,}000{,}000
• Life expectancy in 1900: 47 years
• Homes with bathtubs in 1900: 14 ext{%}
• Cars in 1900: 8{,}000
• Road miles in 1900: 144
• Town speed limit: 10 ext{ mph}
• Wages: 1 dollar per day (average)
• Number of millionaires around 1900: 400
• Share of oil production owned by Rockefeller: >50 ext{%}
• Population in the United States around 1900: 75{,}000{,}000
• Triangle Fire casualties and related figures as described: referenced numbers including 900 workers, 350 survivors exiting, 150 deaths (as described in lecture; figures reflect classroom discussion)
• Philippines independence: 1946 (formal independence)
• Hawaii annexation apology: 1993
• Anti-imperialist vs. pro-imperialist stance (named individuals and groups): Jane Addams, Andrew Carnegie; Teddy Roosevelt, Elvin Thayer (pro-imperialists); Lincoln Steffens, Upton Sinclair (muckrakers) as reform voices.