Russia Tsar Nicholas and nationalities

Why the Tsarist Regime Collapsed (1917)

• Nicholas II crowned Tsar in 1894; popular at first (“Little Father of Russia”).

• 23 years later removed and imprisoned with family.

• Commentators predicted collapse long before 1917; survival until then was surprising.

Key reasons for collapse:

1. Difficulties ruling Russia

   • Vast, diverse empire → hard to govern.

   • Poor infrastructure, illiterate peasants, corruption in civil service.

   • Opposition groups and revolutionary ideas growing.

2. 1905 Revolution

   • Tsar survived through concessions like the Duma, limited reforms, and force.

3. Impact of WWI

   • Tsar personally took command of the army → blamed for defeats.

   • Food shortages, economic hardship, and loss of morale weakened his rule.

4. March 1917 Revolution

   • Strikes, protests, and soldiers refusing orders created unstoppable unrest.

   • Tsar had lost support of army, government, and people → abdicated.

Nicholas II became Tsar in 1894 and was initially celebrated as the “Little Father of Russia.” However, by 1917 he and his family were imprisoned, despite surviving 23 troubled years, which many commentators had expected to end sooner. The collapse of the Tsarist regime was caused by a combination of factors. Ruling such a vast and diverse empire was extremely difficult, with poor infrastructure, an illiterate peasantry, widespread corruption, and growing revolutionary ideas. The Tsar survived the 1905 Revolution by making limited concessions, such as establishing the Duma, while still using force to suppress opposition. The First World War further weakened him, as defeats, food shortages, and economic hardship undermined morale and confidence in his leadership. Finally, the March 1917 Revolution succeeded because strikes, protests, and mutinies in the army made unrest unstoppable, leaving the Tsar without support and forcing his abdication.

The Tsar and His Government

I. Autocracy

• Russia = huge, diverse empire, ruled by one man: the Tsar.

• Nicholas II had absolute power; committed to autocracy.

• Unlike most European countries, he ignored calls for reform or democracy.

• Supported by:

  • Russian nobles

  • Army commanders

  • The Orthodox Church

  • Bureaucracy (civil service)

• Quote from 1894 coronation: Nicholas promised to uphold autocracy and devote himself to the welfare of the people.

Russia was a huge and diverse empire ruled by one man, Tsar Nicholas II, who had absolute power and was committed to autocracy. Unlike most European countries, which had begun to introduce some political reforms, Nicholas II refused to listen to calls for democracy or change. He had strong support from the Russian nobles, army commanders, the Orthodox Church, and the bureaucracy that ran the government. At his coronation in 1894, Nicholas promised to devote himself to the welfare of the people and uphold the principle of autocracy firmly, showing his determination to maintain total control.

II. Control and Repression

• Tsar maintained control through army, Church, and bureaucracy.

• Newspapers censored, political parties banned.

• Police had special force (10,000 officers) to deal with opponents.

• Okhrana (secret police): arrested and exiled thousands to Siberia.

• Army & Cossack regiments used to crush uprisings.

• Countryside:

  • Peasants lived in mirs (village communes) controlling daily life.

  • Each area had a land captain (local noble) handling disputes/crimes.

  • Larger regions ruled by governors with powers to arrest, censor, and suppress opposition.

• Towns/districts: zemstva (local councils) existed but dominated by nobles and professionals.

• Zemstva improved health and education and gave experience in local government.

• Some wanted a national zemstvo (elected body to share power) → Tsar refused.

The Tsar controlled Russia through the army, the Church, and the bureaucracy, enforcing strict repression. Newspapers were censored, political parties banned, and a special police force of 10,000 officers targeted political opponents. The secret police, the Okhrana, was highly effective, sending thousands to prison or exile in Siberia, while the army, especially the feared Cossack regiments, crushed disturbances. In the countryside, peasants lived in mirs, or village communes, which regulated their daily lives. Local nobles, known as land captains, dealt with disputes, while governors appointed by the Tsar ruled larger regions with sweeping powers to arrest, censor, and suppress trouble. In towns and districts, elected councils called zemstva existed but were dominated by nobles and professionals. Though the zemstva contributed to improvements in health and education and provided experience in local government, calls for a national zemstvo to give elected representatives a say in running the country were rejected by the Tsar.

III. Profile – Tsar Nicholas II

• Born: 1868

• Crowned: 1896

• Married Alexandra of Hesse (granddaughter of Queen Victoria).

• Both he and Alexandra fully committed to autocracy (absolute rule).

• Regularly rejected reform requests.

• Strong interest in the Far East → led to Russo-Japanese War (1905), which ended disastrously for Russia.

• Weak ruler: ineffective, indecisive, unable to focus on government work.

• Personally: kind and loving family man, but out of touch with Russia’s changing society.

• 1917: Lost control and abdicated.

• 1918: Executed with his family by the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War.

IV. Chaos and Incompetence

• Nicholas II was not a strong ruler – even supporters admitted this.

• Worked hard but avoided big decisions, wasting time on trivial tasks.

  • Personally answered peasants’ letters.

  • Appointed provincial midwives.

  • Wrote out instructions for the royal car.

• Did not delegate daily responsibilities → a serious issue in a vast empire like Russia.

• Felt threatened by talented ministers.

  • Refused to chair the Council of Ministers (disliked confrontation).

  • Encouraged rivalry between ministers → caused chaos and lack of cooperation.

• Appointed family and friends to important posts despite incompetence/corruption.

  • Many enriched themselves through bribes.

Although Tsar Nicholas II worked hard, most historians — and even some of his own supporters — agreed that he was not an effective ruler. He avoided making major decisions and instead wasted time on trivial matters, such as answering peasants’ letters, appointing midwives, or writing instructions for the royal car. In such a vast empire, his failure to delegate important responsibilities created serious problems. Nicholas also felt threatened by talented ministers, refusing to chair the Council of Ministers because he disliked confrontation, and instead encouraging rivalry among his officials, which led to chaos and lack of cooperation between departments. He further weakened his government by appointing family members and friends from court to high positions, many of whom were incompetent or corrupt, using their offices to enrich themselves through bribes.

The Russian People

1. The Nationalities

• Only 40% of population spoke Russian as first language.

• Many other groups = “nationalities.”

• Some loyal (e.g. Cossacks), others hostile (e.g. Poles, Finns).

• Jews faced prejudice + pogroms (violent attacks encouraged by gov).

2. Peasants & the Countryside

• Around 80% of population = peasants in communes.

• Before 1861: serfs bound to landlords.

• 1861 emancipation: some bought land, became kulaks (wealthier peasants) – only ~4%.

• Majority = very poor, taxed heavily, little education, life expectancy ~40 years.

• Still owed Redemption Taxes (repayment for emancipation).

• Land issue: good farmland controlled by landlords & kulaks, while many peasants barely fed families.

• Farming methods outdated → poor harvests, famine (1901–02, 1906–08).

• Famines deepened divide between rich & poor.

• Most peasants loyal to Tsar due to Church teachings, but some joined radical parties calling for land redistribution.

3. Industrial Workers & Cities

• From late 1800s: Tsars pushed industrialisation (Witte’s reforms).

• Oil & coal production trebled; iron quadrupled.

• Peasants moved to cities → became workers (~4% of pop. by 1900).

• Conditions: slum housing, shared kitchens, disease, alcoholism.

• Long hours (11.5/day), low pay, rising food prices.

• Some slept in factories; dangerous fumes, no insurance.

• Trade unions & strikes illegal until 1905.

• Growing protests & strikes → often crushed by Cossacks/army.

• Many workers turned to radical political parties.

4. The Capitalists

• Industrialisation created new capitalist class (industrialists, bankers, businessmen, traders).

• Russia’s small middle class expanded in towns.

• Concerns:

  • Economy (wanted more say in gov).

  • Control of workforce (clashes with workers).

• Tensions between capitalists vs. workers became important before 1917.

The Russian Empire was very diverse: only 40% spoke Russian as their first language, while groups like Poles and Finns resented Russian rule, and Jews suffered prejudice and pogroms. Around 80% of the population were peasants, most living in poverty with outdated farming methods and heavy taxes. A few became wealthier kulaks after the 1861 emancipation, but the “land issue” left many peasants struggling during famines.

Industrialisation expanded under Sergei Witte, with coal, oil, and iron production growing rapidly. Yet industrial workers—about 4% of the population—faced overcrowded slums, long hours, low pay, and food shortages, with strikes banned until 1905. Many turned to radical parties. At the same time, a new capitalist middle class of businessmen and industrialists emerged, demanding more political influence but clashing with workers, adding to Russia’s tensions before 1917.