Speech Acts and Events - Lecture Notes

Speech Acts and Events

Introduction to Speech Acts

Actions performed via utterances are known as Speech Acts. Examples include:

• Apology: Sorry for stepping on your toes.
• Complaint: There’s hair in my soup!
• Compliment: (Example missing from transcript)
• Invitation: Come to us, and let’s have dinner.
• Promise: (Example missing from transcript)
• Request: (Example missing from transcript)
• Declaration: (Example missing from transcript)

Introduction to Speech Events

A speech event involves the following:

• The speaker expects their communicative intention to be recognized by the hearer.
• Both speaker and hearer are usually helped by the circumstances surrounding the utterance.
• These circumstances are called the speech event.

Example:

• Utterance: This tea is really cold!
  • On a cold winter day: Complaint
  • On a hot summer day: A satisfied response

Components of Speech Acts

On any occasion, the action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related acts:

• Locutionary Act: The act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expression (a word, a phrase; an utterance).
• Illocutionary Act/Force: The communicative function or purpose of the utterance.
• Perlocutionary Act/Effect: The assumption that the hearer will recognise the purpose you intended.

Example:

• Utterance: This tea is really cold!
  • Locution: A word/phrase; an utterance
  • Illocution: I am complaining!
  • Perlocution: Sorry, I’ll change it!

Speaker, Message, and Hearer in Speech Acts

The speaker produces a message (locution), which carries an illocutionary force, and affects the hearer with a perlocutionary effect.

Example:

• Locution: This tea is really cold!

  • Illocution (Speaker): I don't like it!

  • Perlocution (Hearer): Glad to hear that!/ Enjoy!

Recognizing Illocutionary Force

Two locutionary acts:

• I’ve just made some coffee.

Possible illocutionary forces:

• Have some with me.
• I couldn’t sleep last night.
• I’ll see you later!

Possible illocutionary forces:

• I predict that I’ll see you later!
• I promise you that I’ll see you later!
• I warn you that I’ll see you later!

Speakers assume that the intended illocutionary force will be recognised by the hearer.

Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices (IFIDs) and Felicity Conditions

The most obvious device for indicating the illocutionary force is the Illocutionary Force Indicating Device (IFID).
A performative verb is used to indicate the intended force:

• I (VP) you that …

  • I warn you that I’ll see you later!
  • I promise you that I’ll see you later!

Additional Examples

• Locution: This tea is really cold. I can't drink it!
• Locution: This tea is really cold. I love it!

Telephone Conversation Example

• Man: Can I talk to Mary?
• Woman: She’s not here.
• Man: (I am asking you!) – Can I talk to her?
• Woman: (And I am telling you!) – She’s not here!

Sometimes we need to draw attention to the illocutionary force using performative verbs!

Most of the time we use other IFIDS: stress, intonation, word order, etc.

• You’re going! [I tell you …]
• You’re going? [I request confirmation about …]
• Are you going? [I ask you if …]

Felicity Conditions

There are certain circumstances (expected or appropriate) for the intended speech act to be recognised.

These circumstances are technically known as felicity conditions.

• I (hereby) sentence you to six months in prison.
  • Achieves its intended effect when uttered by a JUDGE!
  • May not achieve an effect when uttered by a FRIEND!

This utterance is only felicitous (successful), i.e., it has the intended effect on the hearer, when said by a JUDGE.

Further Example of Felicity Conditions

• When I was at my military service, we (16 people!) slept in a large ward/ dorm

  • Friends, please turn off the lights and go to bed!
  • Soldier, turn off the lights and go to bed! (from the WARD OFFICER)

This utterance is only felicitous (successful), i.e., it has the intended effect on the hearer, when said by a/an WARD OFFICER.

Four Conditions for a Felicitous Act

A Promise

• Eat your food, and you’ll get candy!

  • Content condition: The event is/will be an act of the speaker.
  • Preparatory condition: The event will have an (beneficial) effect.
  • Sincerity condition: The speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action.
  • Essential condition: The future action will be taken under the essential condition, i.e., if you eat your food. Then the action will be the speaker’s obligation.

A Threat

• Eat your food, or you’ll get no candy!

  • Content condition: The event is/will be an act of the speaker.
  • Preparatory condition: The event will have an (NOT beneficial) effect.
  • Sincerity condition: The speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action.
  • Essential condition: The future action will be taken under the essential condition, i.e., if you eat your food. Then the action will be the speaker’s obligation.

The Performative Hypothesis

When we perform / hear speech acts, we assume that underlying every utterance:

• There is a clause containing a performative verb, which
• Makes the illocutionary force explicit.

This is known as the PERFORMATIVE HYPOTHESIS.

Here is the formula:
$I \text{ (hereby) } Vp \text{ you (that) … [utterance]…}$

Examples:

• (I warn you that) I’ll see you later!
• (I promise you that) I’ll see you later!

More Examples of the Performative Hypothesis

$I \text{ (hereby) order/command you that you …………}$

• Clean up this mess! (implicit / primary performative)
• I hereby order you that you clean up this mess! (explicit performative)
• Can I talk to Mary?
• I (hereby) request to talk to Mary!
• She’s not here!
• I (hereby) state/inform you that she’s not here!

Practice: IFIDs

Actions performed via utterances – Speech Acts

• Apology ---- Sorry for stepping on your toes. I (hereby) apologize for stepping on your toes.
• Complaint ---- There’s hair in my soup!
• Compliment ---- (Example missing)
• Invitation ---- Come to us and let’s have dinner.
• Promise ---- (Example missing)
• Request ---- (Example missing)
• Etc.

Term Project

• Find a video on YouTube
• Find a Section for Analysis
• Transcribe that Section
• Analyse
• Report EXAMPLE …