Chapter 13: Elections and Campaigns - Study Notes

Political Participation: The ways in which individuals take action to shape laws and policies of government.
Types of Political Participation:
  - Conventional Political Participation:
    - Voting
    - Volunteering for a political campaign
    - Campaign donations
    - Membership in activist groups
    - Serving in public office
  - Unconventional Political Participation:
    - Activities often deemed inappropriate, such as civil disobedience.
Importance: Citizens must make their wishes known to ensure the functioning of representative democracy.
Voter Turnout: Most Americans do not participate in elections, influenced by multiple factors.

Significance of Money:
- Money plays a critical role in electoral success.
- Political Action Committees (PACs): Entities formed to raise money for election campaigns, subject to limits under FECA, monitored by the FEC.
Buckley v. Valeo (1976):
- Supreme Court ruling: individuals can spend unlimited amounts of their own money on campaigns.
BCRA (2002):
- Aimed to close loopholes related to soft money contributions.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010):
- Outcome: Corporations and unions can spend freely on political campaigns as a matter of free speech, leading to the creation of Super PACs that can accept unlimited donations for indirect campaign expenditures.

Voting is not the only method.
Linkage institutions connect individuals to government: elections, political parties, interest groups, and media.
Social Movements: Join individuals for collective action aimed at societal or political change (e.g., protests, advocacy).

Figure 13.1: Illustrates various non-voting political activities by Americans (e.g., influencing others, political donations, attending meetings).

Voting requirements established by states, based on
- Suffrage/Franchise: Terms for the right to vote.
Important Amendments:
  1. 15th Amendment: Prohibits voting discrimination based on race.
  2. 17th Amendment: Direct election of senators by voters.
  3. 19th Amendment: Prohibits sex-based voting discrimination.
  4. 24th Amendment: Outlaws poll taxes in federal elections.
  5. 26th Amendment: Lowers voting age to 18.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: Prohibits racial discrimination in voter qualifications.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: Bans literacy tests and other practices resulting in discrimination; introduced preclearance for voting procedure changes, later struck down (Shelby County v. Holder, 2013).
National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (Motor Voter Act): Required states to offer voter registration at the time of driver's license applications.

Metrics of Voter Turnout:
  - Voting Age Population: All persons aged 18 or older.
  - Voting Eligible Population: All individuals who meet legal qualifications for voting.
  - Registered Voters: Those who have completed registration.
Personal Characteristics Correlating with Voting:
  1. Socioeconomic Status (SES):
    - Higher education correlates with higher voter turnout; education affects political efficacy.
  2. Age:
    - Older citizens generally vote more due to issues affecting their lives directly.
    - Younger citizens often lack strong views or stakes in public policy.
  3. Gender: Women historically vote at slightly higher rates than men.
  4. Race:
    - Historically significant differences in turnout rates, with whites generally voting at higher rates than African American and Hispanic Americans.

Expansion of Voting Rights: Marginalized groups historically encounter barriers.
Negative Campaigning: Generates apathy towards voting participation.
Registration Process: Restrictive laws lower turnout; states enhancing access (e.g., same-day registration) see higher rates.
Voter ID Laws: Stricter requirements may lower turnout—especially affecting the elderly, low-income, and less-educated populations.
Election Timing: Tuesday elections disadvantage working individuals, while absentee and early voting opportunities help mitigate turnout barriers.
Felony Disenfranchisement: Varied state laws regarding voting eligibility for felons impact turnout significantly.
Federal vs. State Elections: Historically, federal elections see higher turnout rates than state or local elections.

Turnout Trends: Presidential elections yield higher participation rates compared to midterm elections.

Rational Choice Voting: Making decisions based on beliefs about personal benefits.
Retrospective Voting: Evaluating incumbents based on past performance.
Prospective Voting: Voting based on promises for future action.
Party-Line Voting: Voting based on party affiliation across all offices.

Purpose:
  - Formal adoption of party platforms and nomination of presidential candidates.
  - Attempt to unify party factions post-primary.
  - High-profile events, heavily promoted to the public.
Nomination Process:
- Candidates compete in primary elections (open vs. closed) and caucuses for delegates.

Structure:
  - Established by Article 2, Section 1 of the Constitution.
  - Each state’s electoral votes equal their congressional representation (Senate + House).
  - DC allocated three electoral votes by the 23rd Amendment.
Voting Mechanics:
- Winner-take-all model (except for Maine and Nebraska).
- Total of 538 electoral votes needed: Majority needed to win is 270.
Controversies:
- Can result in popular vote winners losing the presidency (as seen in past elections).
- Criticisms include systemic disenfranchisement and underrepresentation of minority votes.

Campaign expenditures in elections can reach billions; regulations exist to prevent corruption.
Key Legislation:
- FECA (1971): Introduced limits on contributions and spending, created the FEC to oversee compliance.
- BCRA (2002): Tried to limit soft-money contributions and advanced transparency in advertising.
Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Supreme Court rules that restrictions on corporate spending violate free speech, leading to proliferation of Super PACs for independent expenditures.

Different Types of Money:
  - Hard Money: Direct donations to candidates.
  - Soft Money: Contributions for party-building activities.
  - Dark Money: Anonymous donations to nonprofit groups for political advocacy.

Increased costs correlated with campaign strategies, hiring consultants, and media influence.

Examined tension between free speech and money influence in politics; implications of campaign finance laws and ongoing debates surrounding electoral fairness.