Modernity, the Cold War, and the Space Race

Nikita Khrushchev’s Ascension (1953): Following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev seized power. While remaining a committed communist and dictator who rejected democracy, Khrushchev sought to diverge from Stalin's extreme brutality.
Economic Context: Khrushchev emerged during a period of poor economic performance in the Soviet Union, leading him to suggest that Stalin had made considerable mistakes.
Destalinization: This was Khrushchev's effort to move away from the most extreme elements of Stalinist rule. He aimed to execute fewer people and reduce the population in the Gulags.
The Secret Speech: Khrushchev delivered a secret speech to the Communist Party in which he shocked the audience by denouncing many of Stalin’s crimes.
The Hungarian Revolt: When the secret speech became known to the public, it encouraged people in Hungary to believe the Soviets might allow more autonomy. When the Hungarians attempted a revolt, Khrushchev proved he was still a direct dictator by sending in troops and crushing the uprising.

Strategic Accommodation: President Eisenhower's vision of "modern Republicanism" was a pragmatic approach to governance. While some in the Republican Party wanted to roll back the New Deal policies entirely, Eisenhower realized this would be unpopular and economically damaging.
Acceptance of the Social Welfare State: Eisenhower accommodated key New Deal ideas, including: * Government management of the economy (Keynesian economics). * Social welfare state mechanisms. * Laws protecting organized labor and supporting farmers.
Rationale for Big Government: Eisenhower believed a strong, well-managed government and a big economy were essential tools to successfully win the Cold War against communism.

The "New Look" Approach: Elected due to public dissatisfaction with the stalemate in the Korean War, Eisenhower aimed to avoid large ground wars while maintaining security.
Military Restructuring: The US reduced the size of the conventional Army and instead relied heavily on air power and nuclear weapons. Eisenhower believed his stature as a General would make this threat more credible to adversaries than it had been under Harry Truman.
Brinksmanship: This was the policy of being willing to go to the "brink" of nuclear war. Eisenhower was willing to stare down the Soviets and threaten nuclear use to force them to the negotiating table.
Shift Toward Diplomacy: Despite his military posture, Eisenhower ultimately wanted to negotiate. Following his reelection in 1956, he began transitioning from a "man of war" to a "man of peace," initiating a series of summits with Khrushchev starting in 1955 to calm the military contest.
Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower feared that a massive, permanent military establishment would eventually cause the Republic to serve the military rather than the military serving the Republic.

Soviet Technological Strategy: Khrushchev realized the Soviet Union could not match American technology in a direct military competition, so he shifted the focus to other areas, believing the socialist economy would eventually triumph.
Sputnik (October 1957): The Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik. It was launched on a rocket and achieved a speed of $17,500\,mph$ ; if it had been slower, gravity would have pulled it back to Earth.
American Reaction: The launch caused a national panic, as it shattered the American assumption that the Soviets were technologically inferior. The failure of the US Navy’s Vanguard program in December 1957, where the rocket rose only four inches before exploding, led newspapers to mockingly call it "Kaputnik."
Wernher von Braun: A former German Nazi rocket scientist, von Braun worked for the US Army. Eisenhower had initially slowed von Braun’s progress because he found the space race provocative and disliked von Braun's background.
Creation of NASA: In response to the crisis and pressure from Senator Lyndon B. Johnson, Eisenhower approved the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to keep the space program civilian and non-military.

Cuban Revolution: Cuba, located only $90\,miles$ from Florida, saw the overthrow of the US-backed Batista regime by Fidel Castro. While the US viewed Cuba as being within its sphere of influence, Castro's economic reforms and redistribution of wealth prompted opposition from wealthy Cubans who fled to Florida.
Soviet-Cuban Alliance: Feeling threatened by the US, Castro reached out to the Soviet Union and declared himself a communist, providing Khrushchev with a foothold near the American coast.
The Kitchen Debate (Moscow): Vice President Richard Nixon and Khrushchev had a famous public exchange at a world’s fair exhibition in a mock American kitchen. Khrushchev pointed to Soviet rocket superiority as proof of a better system; Nixon countered by pointing to the standard of living of American housewives, asking, "What's more important, that you have rockets or that your housewives are happy?"

U-2 Intelligence: Eisenhower was privately confident during the space race because Top Secret U-2 spy plane photos showed the Soviets were actually behind in military power. Soviet rockets were large only because their nuclear payloads were "dumb" and heavy, whereas American nukes were more advanced and compact.
The 1960 U-2 Incident: Khrushchev was aware of the flights but couldn't shoot them down until 1960. When a U-2 was eventually shot down, Khrushchev ended summit meetings with Eisenhower, causing attempts at détente to fail.
The Kennedy Administration: John F. Kennedy ran on a platform of