APWH: Modern 1200 - Present

THE GLOBAL TAPESTRY (C. $1200$-$1450$ CE)

• East and South Asia Development     

• * Song China ($960$-$1279$): The era was defined by the rise of Neo-Confucianism, particularly the works of Zhu Xi.         * A meritocratic civil service examination system was utilized to select government officials.         * Technological and economic advancements included the population boom driven by Champa rice, the development of gunpowder, movable type printing, the magnetic compass, and the use of paper money.         * Social practices included the rise of foot binding among women.     * Mongol Empire and Yuan Dynasty:         * The Mongol Empire was founded in $1206$ by Genghis Khan.         * The Yuan Dynasty was established under Kublai Khan ($1271$-$1368$).         * The period of Pax Mongolica was responsible for the revival of the Silk Roads.     * Delhi Sultanate ($1206$-$1526$):         * This period featured Turkic Muslim rule over Hindu India.         * The government imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslim subjects.         * The bhakti movement emerged as a syncretic cultural response.     * Japan:         * Represented by the Heian and Kamakura periods.         * The social structure was feudal, consisting of daimyo (lords) and samurai (warriors) following the bushido code.         * Centralized power was held by a shogun.

• Dar al-Islam, Africa, the Americas, and Europe     * Islamic World Transitions:         * Characterized by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate and the rise of the Seljuk, Mamluk, and Ottoman Turks.         * The House of Wisdom served as a center for translating Greek texts.         * Key intellectual figures included Ibn Sina, Al-Razi, and Ibn Khaldun.     * African Empires:         * The Mali Empire: In $1324$, Mansa Musa embarked on a hajj that crashed the gold market in Egypt. Timbuktu became a major scholarly center, specifically the Sankore Madrasa.         * Great Zimbabwe and Swahili City-States (Kilwa, Mombasa, Mogadishu) thrived on wealth from Indian Ocean trade.     * The Americas:         * Aztec Triple Alliance ($1428$): Centered in Tenochtitlán, featuring chinampas (floating gardens) and a tribute empire.         * Inca Empire: Based in Cuzco, utilized the mita labor system, quipus (knot records), and established Machu Picchu.         * Mississippian culture was exemplified by the site of Cahokia.     * Europe:         * Social structures were defined by feudalism and manorialism.         * The Great Schism of $1054$ split Christianity into Western and Eastern branches.         * The Black Death ($1347$-$1351$) resulted in the death of $30-50$% of the population.

NETWORKS OF EXCHANGE (C. $1200$-$1450$ CE)

• Big Narrative: The Infrastructure of Trade     * Three major networks connected Afro-Eurasia, facilitating the movement of luxury goods, technologies, religions, and diseases, building the foundation for an interconnected world.

• The Silk Roads (Overland, Eurasia)     * Route: Connected China, Central Asia, Persia, and the Mediterranean.     * Revival: Revitalized under the Pax Mongolica.     * Goods: Primary exports included silk, porcelain, tea, and paper; imports included gold, horses, and glass.     * Technology: Development of caravanserai (rest stops every $20$ miles), the use of yurts, and camel saddles.     * Innovations: The Mongol postal system (yam) and financial innovations such as flying cash (Chinese credit notes), banking houses, and bills of exchange (European origin).

• Indian Ocean Trade (Maritime)     * Status: Considered the most important network of the era.     * Mechanics: Powered by monsoon winds (Southwest in summer, Northeast in winter).     * Ships: Use of dhows and junks.     * Goods: Spices (pepper, cinnamon, cloves), cotton textiles, timber, porcelain, ivory, and enslaved people.     * Key City-States: Kilwa, Mombasa, Mogadishu (East Africa); Aden, Hormuz (Arabia); Calicut, Gujarat (India); Melaka (Southeast Asia); Quanzhou (China).     * Southeast Asian Powers: Srivijaya (Buddhist, $7$th-$13$th centuries), Majapahit (Hindu-Buddhist, Java), and Melaka (Muslim, $15$th century).     * Zheng He Voyages ($1405$-$1433$): Seven Ming treasure fleets reached East Africa; the program was abandoned by the Ming in $1433$.

• Trans-Saharan Trade (Camel Caravans)     * Route: Connected North Africa and West Africa across the Sahara Desert.     * Enablers: Facilitated by the development of the camel saddle.     * Goods: Gold (from Ghana, Mali, Songhai), salt (from Saharan mines like Taghaza), enslaved people, kola nuts, and copper.     * Religious Impact: Islam spread via merchants, scholars, and Sufi missionaries; Timbuktu became a university city.

• Intercultural Transmissions and Biological Impact     * Technology Diffusion: Gunpowder, the compass, paper, and printing moved from China to the rest of the world. The lateen sail and astrolabe moved from the Arab world to Europe.     * Crops: Champa rice migrated from Vietnam to China; cotton, sugar, and citrus spread westward.     * Religious Spread: Islam dominated the Indian Ocean and Trans-Saharan routes; Buddhism traveled along the Silk Roads; Christian missions spread eastward.     * Disease: The Black Death ($1347$-$1351$), caused by the Y. pestis bacterium, spread via Mongol networks and reached Europe at Caffa.     * Major Travelers:         * Marco Polo: Traveled to Yuan China ($1271$-$1295$).         * Ibn Battuta: Traveled over $75,000$ miles ($1325$-$1354$).         * Margery Kempe: A Christian pilgrim.         * Rabban Bar Sauma: A Nestorian monk traveling East to West.     * Diasporic Communities: Muslim merchants in Gujarat and the Swahili coast; Jewish communities in North Africa (Radhanites); Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.

LAND-BASED EMPIRES (C. $1450$-$1750$)

• Big Narrative: Power Consolidation     * Gunpowder technology combined with sophisticated bureaucracy allowed empires to scale to unprecedented levels. This era focused on how the four gunpowder empires consolidated and legitimized their power.

• The Four Gunpowder Empires     * Ottoman Empire ($1299$-$1922$):         * In $1453$, Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (Istanbul).         * Utilized the devshirme system to recruit Christian boys into the elite Janissary corps.         * The millet system allowed religious tolerance in exchange for a tax.         * Reached its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent (reigned $1520$-$1566$).     * Safavid Empire ($1501$-$1736$):         * Founded in Persia by Shah Ismail at age $14$.         * Established Twelver Shi'a Islam as the state religion, leading to permanent conflict with the Sunni Ottomans.         * Shah Abbas I (reigned $1588$-$1629$) modernized the military and built the city of Isfahan.     * Mughal Empire ($1526$-$1857$):         * Founded in India by Babur (a descendant of Timur) after the Battle of Panipat.         * Akbar the Great (reigned $1556$-$1605$) promoted religious tolerance, created the syncretic religion Din-i Ilahi, and abolished the jizya.         * Shah Jahan constructed the Taj Mahal.         * Aurangzeb reversed tolerance policies, destroyed Hindu temples, and weakened the empire.     * Qing Dynasty ($1644$-$1912$):         * Ruled China by the Manchu people (not Han).         * Notable rulers included Kangxi (reigned $1661$-$1722$) and Qianlong (reigned $1735$-$1796$).         * Required the queue hairstyle for Han men.         * Implemented the Canton System to limit foreign trade.

• Methods of Consolidating and Legitimizing Power     * Bureaucracies: Ottoman devshirme created loyal slave-soldiers; China maintained civil service exams based on Confucian classics; Russia introduced the Table of Ranks under Peter the Great ($1722$).     * Religious Legitimization: Ottoman sultans claimed the title of Caliph of Islam; Safavid shahs claimed to be the "Shadow of God"; European monarchs asserted Divine Right (e.g., James I, Louis XIV).     * Monumental Architecture: Taj Mahal (Agra), Suleymaniye Mosque (Istanbul), Shah Mosque (Isfahan), Forbidden City (Beijing), and Versailles (Louis XIV).     * Tax Strategies: Ottoman tax farming (iltizam); Mughal zamindars; Spanish encomienda; Russian serf labor tax.     * Art as Propaganda: मुगल (Mughal) miniature painting; Ottoman calligraphy; European court portraits.

• Other Significant Empires     * Russia: Expanded east under Ivan IV "the Terrible" ($1547$-$1584$) and created the oprichnina. Peter the Great ($1682$-$1725$) westernized the nation and founded St. Petersburg. Catherine the Great expanded to the Black Sea.     * Tokugawa Japan ($1603$-$1868$): Implemented the sakoku isolation policy; established a rigid social hierarchy (samurai/daimyo/peasant/merchant). Dutch trade was restricted to Deshima (Nagasaki).     * Songhai Empire ($1464$-$1591$): West African empire under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad; fell to a Moroccan invasion in $1591$.     * Habsburg Spain: Under Charles V and Philip II, briefly united Spain with the Holy Roman Empire; financed primarily by American silver.

TRANSOCEANIC INTERCONNECTIONS (C. $1450$-$1750$)

• Big Narrative: A Connected World     * European exploration connected the hemispheres for the first time. The resulting Columbian Exchange, Atlantic slave trade, and Europe-centered economies fundamentally reshaped all continents.

• Exploration and Technology     * Key Technology: Caravel and carrack ships, the astrolabe, the magnetic compass, improved cartography, and the lateen sail (mostly adopted from Muslim and Chinese sources).     * Portugal: Led by Henry the Navigator's school at Sagres. Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in $1488$. Vasco da Gama reached India in $1498$. Portugal seized Goa ($1510$), Melaka ($1511$), and Macau ($1557$), creating a trading-post empire.     * Spain: Christopher Columbus reached the Caribbean in $1492$. Ferdinand Magellan’s crew completed a circumnavigation ($1519$-$1522$). Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs ($1519$-$1521$), aided by Malinche and Tlaxcalan allies. Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca ($1532$-$1533$) after ambushing Atahualpa at Cajamarca.     * Treaty of Tordesillas ($1494$): The Pope divided the non-Christian world; Brazil was granted to Portugal, and the rest of the Americas to Spain.     * English and Dutch: Defeated the Spanish Armada in $1588$. The English founded Jamestown in $1607$ and Plymouth in $1620$. The Dutch seized the Spice Islands and founded New Amsterdam (NYC) in $1625$.

• The Columbian Exchange     * Old World to New World: Movement of horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, wheat, rice, sugar, and bananas. Specifically, smallpox, measles, influenza, and typhus killed $50-90$% of Indigenous Americans.     * New World to Old World: Movement of corn, potatoes, tomatoes, cassava, peppers, cacao, tobacco, turkeys, vanilla, and beans. Syphilis also moved to the Old World.     * Population Impacts: Potatoes and corn fueled population booms in Europe and China; cassava became a staple that saved African populations.     * Environmental Impacts: Sugar plantations led to deforestation and soil exhaustion; cattle ranching reshaped American grasslands.

• Atlantic Slave Trade and Coerced Labor     * Triangular Trade: Europe (sent guns, rum) to Africa (enslaved people) to the Americas (sugar, tobacco, cotton) and back to Europe.     * Middle Passage: Approximately $12.5$ million Africans trafficked; roughly $15$% died in transit ($1500$-$1867$).     * Labor Systems: Encomienda (forced Indigenous labor); repartimiento; African chattel slavery; adaptive mit'a used for Potosí silver mines; hacienda estates; intensified Russian serfdom.     * Resistance: Maroon communities (Palmares in Brazil, Jamaica Maroons, Suriname). Stono Rebellion in $1739$. Haitian Revolution ($1791$-$1804$).     * African Effects: Depopulation in Kongo and Angola; rise of slave-trading states like Oyo, Dahomey, and Asante; significant gender imbalances.

• Economic and Social Change     * Mercantilism: Economic theory that wealth equals bullion and trade is a zero-sum game. Navigation Acts ($1651$) restricted colonial trade; implemented by Jean-Baptiste Colbert in France.     * Joint-Stock Companies: British East India Company ($1600$) and Dutch East India Company/VOC ($1602$) were the first multinational corporations; Hudson's Bay Company ($1670$).     * Silver Trade: Mines in Potosí (Bolivia) and Japan; China's Single Whip reform required taxes be paid in silver, creating the first truly global economy and causing inflation in Europe.     * Casta System (Spanish America): Peninsulares > Criollos (Spanish born in Americas) > Mestizos (Euro + Indigenous) > Mulattos (Euro + African) > Indigenous > Africans.     * Price Revolution: American silver caused massive inflation in Europe during the $1500$s, hurting peasants but benefiting merchants.

THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS (C. $1750$-$1900$)

• Big Narrative: Political and Industrial Shifts     * Two types of revolutions remade the world: political revolutions based on Enlightenment ideals (liberty, equality) and the Industrial Revolution which transformed human production.

• Enlightenment Thinkers     * John Locke: Wrote Two Treatises ($1689$); natural rights of life, liberty, and property; government by consent; right to overthrow tyranny.     * Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Wrote The Social Contract ($1762$); general will and popular sovereignty.     * Baron de Montesquieu: Wrote The Spirit of the Laws ($1748$); separation of powers and checks and balances.     * Voltaire: Promoted religious tolerance and free speech.     * Adam Smith: Wrote The Wealth of Nations ($1776$); free markets and the "invisible hand."     * Mary Wollstonecraft: Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ($1792$).

• Political Revolutions     * American Revolution ($1775$-$1783$): Rooted in "no taxation without representation." Declaration of Independence ($1776$) authored by Thomas Jefferson; lead figures include George Washington. Produced the US Constitution ($1787$) and Bill of Rights ($1791$).     * French Revolution ($1789$-$1799$): Triggered by a financial crisis and the Estates-General. Key events: Tennis Court Oath, Storming of the Bastille (July $14$, $1789$), Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, Reign of Terror (Robespierre, guillotine). Ended by Napoleon’s rise in $1799$ and the Napoleonic Code.     * Haitian Revolution ($1791$-$1804$): Led by Toussaint L’Ouverture; the only successful large-scale slave revolution; resulted in the first Black republic. Jean-Jacques Dessalines declared independence in $1804$.     * Latin American Independence ($1810$-$1825$): Led by Simón Bolívar ("El Libertador") in Northern South America, José de San Martín in Southern South America, and Miguel Hidalgo in Mexico ("Grito de Dolores"). Driven by creole elites after Napoleon invaded Spain.     * Nationalism: Italian unification under Cavour and Garibaldi ($1861$). German unification via Otto von Bismarck's "blood and iron" ($1871$). Balkan nationalism against the Ottomans.

• The Industrial Revolution     * Origins (Britain): Driven by coal/iron deposits, navigable rivers, Atlantic trade capital, stable government, and the Agricultural Revolution (Jethro Tull, enclosure movement).     * Textile Innovations: Flying shuttle (Kay, $1733$), spinning jenny (Hargreaves, $1764$), water frame (Arkwright), and power loom (Cartwright).     * Steam Power: James Watt's improved steam engine in $1769$. George Stephenson's Rocket ($1829$). Transatlantic steamships by the $1830$s.     * Second Industrial Revolution ($1870$+): Focus on electricity (Edison, Tesla), Bessemer steel, internal combustion, chemicals, telegraph (Morse, $1844$), telephone (Bell, $1876$), and the assembly line.     * Japan’s Meiji Restoration ($1868$): Commodore Perry forced the opening in $1853$. The Meiji emperor overthrew the shogun, leading to rapid industrialization and a constitution in $1889$. Defeated Russia in $1905$, becoming the only non-Western industrial power.

• Economic Ideologies and Social Change     * Capitalism vs. Marxism: Adam Smith (laissez-faire) versus Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto ($1848$) and Das Kapital ($1867$) detailed class struggle between the bourgeoisie and proletariat.     * Urbanization Risks: Slums in Manchester, Lowell, and Osaka; outbreaks of cholera; child labor (up to $10$-hour days beginning at age $8$).     * Responses: Factory Acts (UK, $1833$+), labor unions, Chartism, and utopian socialists (Fourier, Robert Owen).     * Women’s Rights: Seneca Falls Convention in $1848$ (Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott); Declaration of Sentiments. British suffragette movement (Emmeline Pankhurst).     * Abolition of Slavery: Britain abolished slave trade in $1807$ and slavery in $1833$. US $13$th Amendment in $1865$. Brazil was the last in $1888$.

CONSEQUENCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION (C. $1750$-$1900$)

• Big Narrative: Imperialism and Resistance     * Industrial powers required raw materials and captive markets. The result was a century of aggressive imperialism that divided Africa and Asia and sparked resistance movements.

• Imperialism: Motives and Enablers     * Economic: Quest for rubber, cotton, oil, tin, diamonds; need for captive markets and investment.     * Political/Strategic: National prestige; naval coaling stations (Hong Kong, Suez); buffer zones; the "Great Game" (Britain vs. Russia in Central Asia).     * Ideological: Social Darwinism ("survival of the fittest races"); Rudyard Kipling's "White Man’s Burden" ($1899$); mission civilisatrice; Christian missionary work.     * Technology Enablers: Maxim gun ($1884$), steamships, railroads, quinine (malaria treatment), telegraph, Suez Canal ($1869$).

• Scramble for Africa and Asia     * Berlin Conference ($1884-85$): Hosted by Bismarck to divide Africa; no African leaders present. By $1914$, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent.     * Congo Free State ($1885-1908$): Personal colony of King Leopold II; rubber quotas enforced by mutilation; estimated $10$ million deaths. Exposés by E.D. Morel and Roger Casement led to a Belgian state takeover.     * Britain in India: East India Company took control via Battle of Plassey ($1757$). Sepoy Mutiny ($1857$) triggered by greased cartridges. British Crown took direct control (British Raj) in $1858$. Queen Victoria named "Empress of India" in $1877$.     * China's Century of Humiliation: Opium Wars ($1839$-$1842$ and $1856$-$1860$) over the opium trade. Resulted in unequal treaties such as the Treaty of Nanjing ($1842$); Hong Kong ceded. Land divided into spheres of influence (British, French, German, Russian, Japanese).     * Japan as Imperialist: Sino-Japanese War ($1894-95$) resulted in taking Taiwan. Russo-Japanese War ($1904-05$) defeated Russia. Japan annexed Korea in $1910$.     * US Imperialism: Spanish-American War ($1898$) gained Philippines, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam. Annexed Hawaii in $1898$. Panama Canal completed in $1914$. Proposed the Open Door Policy with China ($1899$).

• Resistance and Rebellion     * India: Sepoy Mutiny ($1857$) and the founding of the Indian National Congress in $1885$.     * China: Taiping Rebellion ($1850-64$) led by Hong Xiuquan; quasi-Christian and resulted in over $20$ million dead (the biggest civil war in history). Boxer Rebellion ($1899-1901$) was anti-foreigner/anti-Christian. Self-Strengthening Movement attempted modernization.     * Africa: Zulu kingdom (Shaka, Cetshwayo) resisted British in South Africa. Ethiopia defeated Italy at the Battle of Adwa ($1896$) under Menelik II. Mahdist revolt in Sudan. Samori Touré resisted French in West Africa.     * Americas: Ghost Dance movement; Wounded Knee Massacre in $1890$ (US Army kills $300$ Lakota).     * Ottoman Empire: Tanzimat reforms ($1839-76$) for modernization. Young Turks revolt in $1908$.

• Global Migration and Economic Change     * Mass Migration: Over $50$ million Europeans to the Americas, Australia, and Argentina. Chinese laborers to California (transcontinental railroad), Cuba, and Peru. Indian indentured laborers to Caribbean, Fiji, and South Africa.     * Settler Colonies: Australia (founded as a penal colony in $1788$), Canada, and New Zealand; expansion devastated Indigenous populations (Aboriginal, Māori, First Nations).     * Cash-crop Dependency: Colonies focused on single exports: Egypt (cotton), Cuba (sugar), Ghana (cocoa), Malaya (rubber), creating vulnerable economies.

GLOBAL CONFLICT (C. $1900$-PRESENT)

• Big Narrative: Total War and Ideological Conflict     * Two world wars remade the globe. Societies utilized total war, genocide reached an industrial scale, and ideologies like fascism and communism dominated the first half of the $20$th century.

• World War I ($1914-18$)     * Causes: MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism). Triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June $28$, $1914$, in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip.     * Alliances: Allies (Britain, France, Russia, later Italy/US/Japan) vs. Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria).     * Warfare: Trench warfare on the Western Front, poison gas, machine guns, tanks (Somme, $1916$), submarines, and aerial bombing. Total casualties: $20$ million dead, $21$ million wounded.     * Colonial Mobilization: $1.5$ million Indians and $1$ million Africans fought for Britain and France.     * Armenian Genocide ($1915-17$): Ottoman Empire killed $1.5$ million Armenians (first modern genocide).     * End: Treaty of Versailles (June $28$, $1919$) included the "war guilt clause," £$6.6$ billion in reparations, territorial losses for Germany, and loss of all German colonies. Woodrow Wilson proposed the League of Nations ($14$ Points), but the US Senate refused to join.

• The Interwar Years ($1919-39$)     * Russian Revolution ($1917$): Tsar Nicholas II abdicated (Feb); Lenin’s Bolsheviks seized power (Oct). Leads to Russian Civil War ($1918-22$). USSR formed in $12022$. Stalin took over in $1924$; implemented Five-Year Plans, collectivization (Holodomor famine $1932-33$, $4$ million+ Ukrainians die), and the Great Purge ($1936-38$).     * Great Depression: Sparked by the US stock crash on October $29$, $1929$ (Black Tuesday). Led to global depression and $25$% unemployment. Responses included Keynesian economics and FDR’s New Deal ($1933$+).     * Rise of Fascism: Mussolini (Italy, March on Rome $1922$). Hitler appointed Chancellor in January $1933$. Militarist Japan invaded Manchuria in $1931$. Spanish Civil War ($1936-39$) led by Franco.     * Anticolonial Movements: Gandhi's Salt March ($1930$). Mao Zedong's Long March ($1934-35$). African National Congress founded in $1912$. Indonesian nationalism under Sukarno.     * Appeasement: Munich Agreement ($1938$), where Britain/France let Hitler take the Sudetenland.

• World War II ($1939-45$)     * Cause: Failure of appeasement; Germany invaded Poland on September $1$, $1939$.     * Turning Points: Pearl Harbor (Dec $7$, $1941$); Battle of Stalingrad ($1942-43$); D-Day (June $6$, $1944$); Battle of Midway (June $1942$). Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima (Aug $6$) and Nagasaki (Aug $9$) in $1945$.     * The Holocaust: Nazi "Final Solution" murdered ~$6$ million Jews and $5$ million others (Roma, disabled, Slavs, LGBTQ+). Major death camps included Auschwitz-Birkenau, Treblinka, and Sobibor.     * Home Fronts: Rosie the Riveter; Soviet women in combat; rationing. Japanese American internment involved $120,000$ people under Executive Order $9066$.     * Casualties: $70-85$ million dead ($3$% of world pop). USSR lost ~$27$ million.

• Post-WWII Order     * United Nations founded October $24$, $1945$. Universal Declaration of Human Rights ($1948$) led by Eleanor Roosevelt.     * Nuremberg and Tokyo Trials established "crimes against humanity."     * Bretton Woods ($1944$): Created IMF and World Bank; US dollar as global reserve currency.

COLD WAR AND DECOLONIZATION (C. $1900$-PRESENT)

• Big Narrative: Rivalry and Independence     * The world was split between US and USSR rivalry for $45$ years while European empires collapsed. Proxy wars were frequently independence struggles.

• The Cold War ($1945-91$)     * Ideological Split: US capitalism/democracy vs. USSR communism. Churchill’s "Iron Curtain" speech in $1946$.     * Early Crises: Truman Doctrine ($1947$) on containment; Marshall Plan ($1948$) gave $13$ billion to rebuild Europe. Berlin Airlift ($1948-49$).     * Alliances: NATO (Western, $1949$) vs. Warsaw Pact (Eastern bloc, $1955$).     * Conflicts: Korean War ($1950-53$) stalemate at the $38$th parallel. Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct $1962$). Vietnam War ($1955-75$) ended with the fall of Saigon.     * Proxy Wars: Angola, Mozambique, Afghanistan ($1979$ Soviet invasion); Nicaragua (Sandinistas vs. Contras); Chile (CIA-backed Pinochet coup, $1973$).     * Arms Race: Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). Sputnik in $1957$. Moon landing in $1969$. SALT I/II treaties.     * End: Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika (from $1985$). Berlin Wall fell November $9$, $1989$. USSR dissolved December $26$, $1991$ .

• Decolonization     * India and Pakistan (Aug $1947$): Gandhi's campaigns (Salt March, Quit India $1942$). Partition led to $1$ million+ deaths and $15$ million refugees. Nehru became the first PM.     * Africa: Ghana first in $1957$ under Kwame Nkrumah. $1960$ was the "Year of Africa" ($17$ nations independent). Algerian War ($1954-62$) against France. Congo crisis and Lumumba assassination in $1960$.     * Middle East: Israel founded May $14$, $1948$. Arab-Israeli Wars ($1948, 1967, 1973$). Suez Crisis ($1956$) under Nasser. Iranian Revolution ($1979$) under Khomeini.     * South Africa: Apartheid legalized in $1848$. Mandela imprisoned ($1964-90$). Apartheid ended in $1994$.

• Movements Beyond the Cold War     * Non-Aligned Movement ($1961$): Leaders like Nehru, Nasser, Tito, Sukarno, and Nkrumah. Bandung Conference ($1955$).     * Green Revolution ($1940$s-$60$s): Norman Borlaug’s high-yield wheat.     * China: Great Leap Forward ($1958-62$) had $30$ million+ dead. Cultural Revolution ($1966-76$). Deng Xiaoping's market reforms ($1978$). Tiananmen Square (June $4$, $1989$).

GLOBALIZATION IN THE MODERN AGE (C. $1900$-PRESENT)

• Big Narrative: The Integrated World     * Post-$1991$ world features integrated economies and instant communication, but creates new inequalities and environmental threats.

• Economic Globalization     * Organizations: WTO ($1995$), IMF, World Bank promote neoliberalism (free trade, deregulation, austerity).     * Regional Blocs: EU ($1993$ Maastricht Treaty), NAFTA ($1994$), USMCA ($2020$), ASEAN, African Union ($2002$), Mercosur, BRICS.     * China's Rise: Fastest growth in history; WTO member in $2001$; $2$nd largest economy by $2010$. Belt and Road Initiative ($2013$).     * Crises: Asian Financial Crisis ($1997$), Great Recession ($2008$), and COVID-$19$ economic shock ($2020$).

• Technology and Culture     * Digital: PCs in $1980$s, Web in $1991$, iPhone in $2007$, Chat GPT in $2022$.     * Medical: Smallpox eradicated $1980$. Human Genome Project ($2003$). mRNA vaccines ($2020$). Global life expectancy rose from $48$ ($1950$) to ~$73$ ($2023$).     * Culture: K-pop, anime, Bollywood. Debates on cultural homogenization vs. glocalization.     * Pandemic Deaths: HIV/AIDS (~$40$ million). COVID-$19$ ($2020-23$) confirmed $7$ million+ deaths.

• Challenges and Global Institutions     * Terrorism: $9/11$ attacks (Sept $11$, $2001$) by al-Qaeda. ISIS rise in $2014$.     * Climate Change: Kyoto Protocol ($1997$); Paris Agreement ($2015$) with $195$ nations.     * Migration: Syrian Civil War ($2011$+) caused $6$ million+ refugees.     * Backlash: Brexit ($2016$); Russia invasion of Ukraine (Feb $2022$); Israel-Hamas war ($2023$+).     * UN Agencies: WHO, UNESCO, UNICEF, UNHCR, WFP. UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) comprise $17$ goals for $2030$.