Linguistics Chapter 1:

Introduction to Linguistics

• Linguistics is the scientific study of human language.

• The definition is simple but complex in understanding how we study language.

Understanding Language

• The term "language" encompasses several interconnected concepts:

  • Individual Languages: Examples include American Sign Language (ASL), English, Mandarin, etc.

  • Programming Languages: Such as Python, R, C++—often used by linguists but outside traditional linguistics.

  • Metaphorical Uses: Includes concepts like body language and love languages, which are also not the primary focus of linguistic study.

The Process of Communication

• The speaker communicates by producing sounds or signs that are captured and transmitted.

• The listener interprets these through auditory or visual signals.

• A successful exchange results in a shared understanding of ideas—this shared understanding is termed mental grammar.

Mental Grammar

• Mental grammar refers to the shared system that enables comprehension of language among speakers.

• Linguistics seeks to understand the nature of this grammar.

• Key questions include:

  • What constitutes language?

  • What do we know when we know a language?

Aspects of Language

• Modality: Knowing whether the language is signed (ASL) or vocalized (spoken).

  • Vocal languages rely on sounds; signed languages use visual signs.

  • Despite different modalities, they share grammar properties.

Segmenting Language

• To understand a language, one must segment the flow of information into units of meaning.

  • Mental Lexicon: Links forms with meanings, akin to a mental dictionary.

  • Form-Meaning Relationship: Most are arbitrary, e.g., the English word "pumpkin" does not inherently relate to its meaning.

Articulatory Phonetics

• Ability to produce sounds or signs requires knowledge of the articulatory phonetics of the language.

• Mastery of language involves both conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) knowledge.

Components of Mental Grammar

1. Phonetics: Knowledge of sounds and how to produce them (implicit).

2. Morphology: Structure and formation of words; differentiating between singular and plural forms, etc.

3. Phonology: Rules governing sound combinations and variations.

4. Syntax: Understanding how words combine to form phrases and sentences (implicit knowledge).

5. Semantics: Meaning derived from words, phrases, and context.

6. Pragmatics: Contextual application of language meaning and interpretation.

Implicit vs. Explicit Knowledge

• Much of what we know about language is implicit and challenging to observe.

• This study aims to make implicit knowledge about mental grammar explicit.

Reading and Writing in Linguistics

• Reading and writing are integral parts of linguistic knowledge but are considered secondary:

  • Children acquire phonetics and syntax before learning to read/write.

  • Knowledge of spoken language exists independently from written forms.

  • Examples include Mongolian speakers who understand regardless of the writing system used.

  • Many signed languages lack written systems, and users often rely on a spoken counterpart (literal bilingualism).

Conclusion

• Literacy enhances understanding but is not a prerequisite for grammatical competence—mental grammar is the foundational knowledge for understanding and using language.

Introduction to Mental Grammar

• The term 'grammar' is utilized differently than traditional definitions found in textbooks.

  • Traditional grammar focuses on rules often tied to assignments and corrections.

  • Mental grammar refers to the internal system enabling language understanding and communication.

Understanding Mental Grammar

• Every human language has a mental grammar.

  • This allows mutual comprehension among speakers.

  • It's crucial to recognize that all languages have a grammar system, even without alphabets or formal rules.

  • There is a shared mental grammar among users of a language.

Validity of Languages and Dialects

• All languages, dialects, and varieties are equally valid.

  • Claims that certain languages or dialects are inferior (e.g., dialects of Italian, French, or English) are unfounded.

  • Linguists do not rank languages; all forms of grammar are equally legitimate.

  • Scientific study of linguistics does not involve valuing one language over another.

  • Social judgments about languages can create hierarchies of power and privilege.

Creativity in Language

• Creativity is a fundamental property of grammar.

  • This refers not only to artistic expression but also to productivity or generativity.

  • Languages have a finite set of words and principles for combining them but can produce an infinite number of sentences.

  • Every day, new sentences are formed using existing vocabulary.

Language Change

• Language is inherently dynamic and undergoes continuous change.

  • Complaints about language degradation by younger generations are common but unfounded.

  • Languages evolve alongside human society; changes occur in vocabulary, phonetics, morphology, and syntax.

  • Fresh concepts necessitate new vocabulary (e.g., 'google' as a verb).

  • Linguists study the systematic ways in which languages vary and change over time.

Overview of Linguistics

• Linguistics is defined as the science of human language.

• The scientific approach to linguistics involves systematic and empirical observations.

• Empirical means gathering data to support or refute theories, similar to other sciences.

The Scientific Approach to Language

• Just like other scientists (e.g., entomologists, chemists), linguists aim for accurate descriptions without value judgments.

• Linguists strive for a descriptive rather than prescriptive approach.

  • Descriptive: Observes and describes language use (e.g., how plurals are formed).

  • Prescriptive: Imposes rules on how language should be used (e.g., insisting on Latin plural forms).

Challenges in Language Study

• Observing language can be more difficult than studying physical phenomena.

• Linguists must find ways to study mental grammar rather than observable behaviors.

Tools for Language Science

• Metalinguistic Awareness: Conscious understanding of grammar.

  • Accessing this awareness helps in describing grammaticality.

  • Difficult for native languages since much knowledge is implicit.

• Example of Metalinguistic Awareness: Creating new words and evaluating their acceptability (e.g., "blifter" vs "lbitfer").

Understanding Grammaticality

• The terms "grammatical" and "ungrammatical" have specific meanings:

  • Grammatical: Forms that can exist in a language (e.g., "blifter").

  • Ungrammatical: Forms that cannot exist in a language (e.g., "lbitfer").

• Comparing sentences can reveal grammatical possibilities.

  • Example Comparisons:

    • "Sam compared the forged painting with the original" (acceptable).

    • "Sam compared the forged painting and the original" (acceptable).

    • Question forms reveal further grammaticality issues.

    • Acceptability judgments clarify what is possible in language.

Research Methods in Linguistics

• Surveys: Used to gather acceptability judgments and regional variations in language.

  • Example question: How do different speakers refer to the same object (e.g., sweatshirt vs hoodie)?

• Corpora: Large databases of language examples from various media sources.

  • Enables analysis of language in authentic contexts.

Specialized Linguistic Tools

• For Phonetics:

  • Praat: Software for analyzing audio.

  • ELAN: Tool for annotating video recordings.

• Behavioral Psychology Techniques:

  • Experiments to measure language processing via reaction times or eye-tracking.

  • Advanced techniques like EEG and fMRI help observe brain activities during language processing.

Conclusion

• The scientific method applies to linguistics, offering exciting insights into grammar as a fundamental cognitive skill.

• Systematic observation tools allow linguists to explore the human mind's relationship with language.

Goals of Linguistics

• Objective: Describe languages and dialects without ranking any as superior.

• Radical because language is a human behavior intertwined with social relationships and categories (e.g., teacher-student, doctor-patient).

• Power dynamics influence expectations about language use.

Social Influences on Language

• Communities shape language use based on ethnicity, religion, profession, and other social identities.

• Language cannot be separated from its social context; all languages and dialects are considered equally valid linguistically.

• Social attitudes and expectations lead to linguistic bias.

Linguistic Biases

• Linguists, like everyone else, have biases regarding language use.

• Judgments about individuals can stem from their language use.

• Developing metalinguistic awareness can help individuals recognize their own biases and understand the implications of linguistic power.

Example of Linguistic Bias

• Prestige of British English in North America:

  • British English varieties are often perceived as high prestige.

  • North Americans may assume UK speakers are more educated or intelligent, regardless of the actual social prestige of their language varieties.

  • This perception highlights the influence of social attitudes rather than language proficiency.

Power Dynamics in Language Standardization

• Higher prestige language forms often align with white, wealthy populations or those with formal education due to colonialism.

• The concept of the "standard" variety often relates to forms commonly seen in dictionaries, textbooks, and high-status media.

  • Standardization is a social mechanism of power.

Institutional Language Enforcement

• In France, the Académie Française enforces what is considered correct French, labeling non-standard forms as dangerous to the language.

• English lacks an official authority (language police) to enforce standards, but social norms and educational materials still uphold these standards.

  • Example: Globe and Mail's acceptance of singular "they" in 2017 demonstrated evolving acceptance of non-standard usage.

• The "Queen's English" is an example of a prestigious linguistic standard tied to power and privilege.

Race, Language, and Standardization

• The "standard" English often reflects the language of white, formally educated individuals.

• Black English, also known as African American Vernacular English, is often marginalized despite its widespread use among Black Americans and across diverse regions.

• Not all Black individuals speak Black English, nor do all Black English speakers identify as Black, yet it is strongly tied to Black American identity.

• Standard English is subconsciously viewed as the English of white people, revealing systemic biases.

Implications of Standardization

• Standardized language is often viewed positively, particularly if one’s background aligns with that standard.

• Assumption that standard English is the only correct form can marginalize other language varieties.

• Examples of discrimination:

  • Haitian children face barriers when public education is conducted in French, making them feel their native Kreyol is wrong.

  • Black students receiving negative reinforcement when using Black English in education can hinder learning.

  • A judge disregarding a Nigerian doctor's expertise due to accent demonstrates bias against non-standard varieties.

  • Black ASL users can be incorrectly assessed, leading to the assumption of incompetence due to lack of understanding of their language variety.

Challenging Standard Language Assumptions

• Society tends to enforce prescriptive norms through education, leading individuals to internalize the notion of one correct standard language.

• Developing metalinguistic awareness allows for questioning which varieties are deemed standard and revealing underlying social status influences.

The Use of Science in Linguistics

• Language as a scientific endeavor, yet not inherently virtuous.

• Tools of linguistics can do harm, especially in the context of Indigenous languages.

Historical Context

• Foundational work in linguistics led by Christian missionaries.

• Missionary goals: convert people, teach doctrine, conduct trade.

• Early documentation of Indigenous languages aimed at resource acquisition, not linguistic understanding.

Implications of Roman Alphabet Usage

• Missionaries used the Roman alphabet, which is designed for European languages.

• This alphabet is not accurately representative of Indigenous phonetics.

• Permanent written texts "freeze" language forms, leading to loss of linguistic variation.

Misconceptions and Attitudes Toward Indigenous Languages

• Missionaries' writings reflected a belief in the inferiority of Indigenous languages.

• Incorrect assumptions about lack of certain words, and a derogatory view on complex grammar.

• Edward Gray's observations on Jesuits deriding polysynthetic structures as indicators of social decay.

Consequences of Missionary Work

• Documentation regarded as foundational but led to inaccuracies and loss of linguistic features.

• Imposition of English and French replaced the use of local languages, driven by colonial agendas.

Residential Schools and Language Suppression

• Canadian government’s policy aimed at eliminating Indigenous languages.

• Indigenous children forcibly removed to residential schools; forbidden from using their family languages.

• Resulting trauma and context of abuse led to language discontinuation among Indigenous people.

Current Status of Indigenous Languages

• Despite colonization, some Indigenous languages still have speakers, while others have become dormant.

• Continuing efforts by Indigenous communities to reclaim and revitalize their languages.

Modern Linguistic Practice and Ethical Considerations

• Linguists must recognize the historical harm of missionary documentation.

• Data gathering often disadvantages language users, lacking reciprocity and respect.

• Linguists' authority can lead to cultural appropriation and misrepresentation.

• Prescriptive norms can emerge from linguistic observations, impacting perceptions of other dialects.

Economic Pressures and Language Loss

• Global capitalistic trends incentivize English use, crucial for labor market participation.

• Increased use of English often leads to diminished usage of local languages.

Lingering Issues with Disability and Language

• Audism affects how linguistics engages with signed languages, privileging vocal language.

• Deaf children often lack adequate language input due to this bias.

• Research methods may misinterpret the capabilities of disabled language users, ignoring individual adaptations.

Insights for Modern Linguists

• Emphasizing humility and awareness of biases in linguistic inquiry.

• Recognizing science as just one avenue of understanding language.

• Encouraging perspectives on grammar as a living construct found in communities, not just individual minds.