American Gov. Unit 3

Unit 3 - Political Socialization

• The process by which individuals establish their political ideologies.

• People’s opinions form in response to events, issues, problems that catch their attention, but opinions also reflect people’s interests and values

Two distinguishing characteristics of political socialization

1. Most people’s political outlooks are shaped during childhood
2. The process is cumulative - you are shaped over time

The political socialization process takes place through agents of socialization

• Primary Agents: interact closely and regularly with the individual, usually early in life, as in the case of family (Ex: Parents, siblings grandma and grandpa)

• Primary Influences

• Family: Near monopoly on the attention of the young child and contributes to basic orientations that, while not directly political, have political significance.

• School: Teachers at the elementary level praise the country’s political institutions and extol the exploits of national heroes. Middle School and High Schools tend to emphasize the nation’s great moments.

• Religion: Religious right is one of the more powerful religious force in contemporary American Politics

• Catholics & Evangelicals often more conservatice + vote Republican (MS)

• Mainline Protestants, Jews, and Hindus are more liberal (ELCA)

• Catholics & Jews are more likely to support anti-poverty programs than Protestants

• Secondary Agents have a less intimate connection with an individual and are usually more important later in life, as in the case of work associates. (Ex. Friends, Co-workers, Neighbors)

• Peers: Research shows that individuals are unwilling to stray too far from the political beliefs of their friends

• Media: Mass media has an “agenda-setting” effect - it influences what is on people’s minds

• Events: The Great Depression, WWII, Vietnam, 9-11, Watershed moments shape people’s political beliefs

Group Orientations

• Economic Class: lower income Americans are more supportive of social welfare programs, business regulation, and progressive taxation than those in higher income categories.

• People with similar incomes, but different occupations do not share the same opinions

• Race: significant source of opinion differences

• Whites tend to be more conservative, minorities tend to be more liberal

• Gender: male-female differences of opinion are small on most issues

• Gender Gap: the tendency of women to vote more strongly democratic than men

• Women also face more economic vulnerability & greater child care role

• Region:

• Rural: More conservative

• Urban: More liberal

• Age:

• Younger voters: more liberal

• Older voters: more conservative

Political Ideology

• Political Identification: political party you think you belong to
• Political Ideology: is a set of views on politics and the role of government

Republicans/GOP (44% of Americans)

• Small government, “few” business regulations

• Favor supply-side or “trickle down” economics (help out businesses to help the economy)

• Low taxes on the rich = increased investment and more jobs

• Private insurance > Obamacare

• Pro-Family (anti-gay marriage)

• Pro-Life (anti-abortion)

• Pro-Gun (against gun control laws)

• Military > diplomacy

Conservative (40% of Americans)

• Aversive to rapid change (likes the way things are)
• Strict interpretation of the Declaration of Independence & Constitution
• Limited government and low taxes
• Desire to preserve traditional morality
• Free-market capitalism
• Desire to use military options over diplomatic

Democrats (48% of Americans)

• “Big” government creates a just & equal society

• Increased regulation of Big Business & larger participation in the social safety net (welfare programs)

• Pro-Labor & Pro-Union - increase taxes on the rich

• Pro-Immigrant - fix the current system to allow more immigrants in

• LGBTQ Allies and pro-gay marriage

• In favor of increased gun control legislation

• Diplomacy > military force

Liberal (25% of Americans)

• Belief that change leads to progress

• A desire to preserve ideas in the Declaration of Independence & Constitution

• Freedom of Speech, Separation of Church v State, Rights of the Accused

• \

• Desire to use the power of government to help the less fortunate

• A desire to protect and expand the rights of minority groups

• Favor regulations to prevent abuses of capitalism

• A desire to use diplomatic options over military options

Third Parties

Libertarian Party: political party that promotes civil liberties, non-interventionism, let it be capitalism, limit gov

Green Party: promotes environmentalism; nonviolence, social justices, anti-war, anti-racism, and eco-socialism

Constitution Party: promotes a religious conservative view of the US, Constitution, Declaration of Independence

Democratic Socialists, Social Conservatives, Feminists, Environmentalists

Measuring Public Opinion

What is public opinion? - Public Opinion is viewed as the politically relevant opinions held by ordinary citizens that they express openly.

• Expression does not need to be verbal (participation of politics)

Public Opinion Polls - Sample- interviewed in order to estimate the opinions of a whole population

• Uses random selection from a population (demographic group): their opinions should reflect those of the population as a whole
• The accuracy of a poll is expressed in terms of sampling error - the degree to which the sample estimates might differ from what the population actually thinks (+/-).

Problems with Polls - Political polling suffers from some of the following issues:

• Choosing a random sample is difficult

• Question order & wording may (purposely) affect results: framing effects & push polls

• Respondents…

• May not know the issues

• May not choose to reveal their opinions

• May not be truthful

• May choose to give the “politically correct” response

What Role Should the Public Play?

• A fundamental principle of democracy is that the people’s view ought to be the foundation of government, but should it?

• Some claim it would be foolish to base policy decisions on whatever the people think (alcohol)

• James Madison writes in The Federalist - gov. is obliged to represent only the public’s “true” interests. (Trustee representation)

• Some contend that almost any opinion held by ordinary citizens should be taken into account by the government

• George Gallup (public opinion polling industry)

• Leaders should be closely in tune with the citizenry

• Based on views of Jackson and Progressives - strong faith in judgment of ordinary citizens

Voter Participation

Suffrage: right to vote

• The right to vote in America has been restricted by wealth, race, and gender

• Black Suffrage: 1870, in reality 1965

• Women’s Suffrage: 1920

• Native Americans 1924

• 18 year olds: 1971

Voter Turnout: refers to the percentage of eligible voters who actually cast a ballot

• Since 1960’s, voter turnout in presidential elections has not reached 60% (but did in 2016 &2020)

• Midterm elections - 40%

• Local elections are even smaller…

• Factors affecting voter turnout:

• Registration requirements

• Americans must personally register to vote

• Added burden on would be voters

• States make it difficult for citizens to register to vote

• Registration locations & time periods may not be published

• Voter ID Cards vs Automatic Registration

• Often state and local officials don’t simplify registration procedures in an effort to reduce number of new voters

• Administrative and political issue

• Same-Day Registration (1970s-today)

• Increased registration & turnout

• Motor Voter Law (1993)

• Increased registration but not turnout

• Frequency of Elections

• Americans are asked to vote more than anywhere else in the western world

• Reduces willingness to vote (voter burn-out)

• State and local officials stagger elections to insulate their races from the possible effects of other campaigns

• In an effort to eliminate “presidential coattails”, states began in the 1930s to hold their gubernatorial (governors)  elections in nonpresidential years

• US is the only democratic nation which uses primaries to choose party nominees rather than by party leaders

• Party Differences

• Many Americans see little difference between the two major political parties

• Similarity of the parties makes voting seem largely irrelevant

• The absence of a major labor or socialist party in the US system appears to undermine the political consciousness and participation of Americans with low income and education.

Political Participation is involvement in activities designed to influence public policy and leadership

• Ex. Vote, Campaign, Attending rallies,

The main issue of democratic government is the question of who participates in politics and how fully they participate.

• On average, about 55% of eligible voters participated in the last three presidential elections.

Why do some Americans vote and others do not?

1. Your Civic Attitude

2. Regular voters are characterized by a strong sense of civic duty

3. Regard participation in elections as a responsibility of citizenship

4. Acquired through childhood political socialization

5. Many citizens are disinterested or unconcerned with politics (apathy)

6. Turnout can increase if…

7. People believe their participation will make a difference

8. Citizens have a high degree of trust in government

9. Alienation diminishes people’s interest in political participation

10. A feeling of personal powerlessness - government does not care about the opinions of people like oneself

11. Age

12. Young adults are less likely to vote than middle-aged adults or senior citizens

13. Do not necessarily have political concerns that match those who own homes, have permanent careers, and a family.

14. Education

15. Those with higher education are more likely to vote

16. Education generates a greater interest in politics, a higher level of political knowledge, a greater confidence that you can make a difference, and peer pressure to participate in politics.

17. Economic Status

18. Regular voters tend to have a higher economic status

19. European nations encourage lower-class voter participation in ways that the US political system doesn’t.

20. The US middle-class, because of its size and voting regularity, is key to victory in US elections

21. Poor ppl would probably have a greater turnout if party alternatives were dif.

22. Labor party, social democrats, religious affiliated parties…

Impact of a Vote

The Popular Mandate

Elections do not ordinarily produce a popular mandate - (a vast majority of voters demand certain actions from the victor) - for the policies advocated by the winning candidate

• Difficulty with this interpretation of election results - voters are not well informed of candidates policy positions

• Candidates do not always make themselves clear

• News media covers campaigns as if they were a strategic game hence de-emphasizing issues of policy.

• Often voters are personally inattentive to politics

How Voters Vote

Prospective Voting

• Voters highly informed on the position of candidates on the issues
• Voters choose candidates whose policy PROMISES match their preferences.

Retrospective Voting

• Voters support incumbent (re-running) candidates or parties when they are pleased with the performance.

• Reverse their position when they are displeased.

• Economy is a key factor

Straight Ticket Voting

• Voters vote for members of their party

Split Ticket Voting

• Voters vote for the candidates they like

• Vote is more policy-based

• Increasing in popularity along with “Independent” or no party affiliation

Other Forms of Civic Participation:

1. Campaign Activities

2. Some people may work for a candidate or a political party by…

3. Attending campaign rallies

4. Canvassing neighborhoods

5. Donating money

6. …

7. Community Activities

8. School boards, PTA’s, Booster Clubs, Rotary Clubs, Church Groups

9. Citizens work together to accomplish community goals

10. American participation (time + money) is greater than Europe

11. Attending to the News

12. Passive political participation: non-participatory activities like watching/reading the news

13. ⅓ of Americans closely read the news, ⅓ follow the news intermittently, ⅓ not at all

14. We get most of the news from TV

15. Young Amerians (mostly) ignore the news

So… Who is Politically Active?

• Conventional participation is more attractive for those who

• Older

• Have higher incomes

• Are more educated

• Have a strong sense of civic duty

• Do not feel politically alienated

• Being politically active requires personal time, effort and some financial resources

Unconventional Activism

• Social or Political Movements are broad efforts by citizens to change a policy that they feel that government has been unresponsive to.

Conventional Activism: includes voting, donating money or time, writing a letter, knocking on doors

Unconventional Activism: includes the use of protests, boycotts, sit-ins, or even riots

        *Americans favor conventional activism > unconventional activism*

Participation and the Potential for Influence: your vote DOES matter

• Citizens can help define the limits of public policy
• Lower-income Americans have a different opinions today compared to wealthier Americans
• American politics has a definite middle-class slant, reflecting the higher participation rate of middle-class Americans, who tend to favor self-interested policies.

Chapter 8

How Democratic are US Elections?

“Time, Place, and Manner” 

• Article I, section 4 gives state legislatures control over the “time, place and manner” of elections.

• Explains different felon voting laws, times, mail-in rules, etc.

• Frequency of Some Elections

• For president = every 4 yrs, Senator = every 6 yrs, Representative = every 2 yrs

Barriers to Voting

• There have been several legal impediments:

• Literacy Tests, Poll Taxes, Banning Suffrage, White Primaries

• Majority parties adjust voting rules to protect themselves.

Campaign Finance

• PACs vs Super PACs

• PACs (Political Action Committees): An organization that raises money privately to influence elections or legislation, especially at the federal level.

• $5000 per Election (primary and then general)

• -4000 PACs account for ⅓ of all contributions

• Super PACS

• A type of PAC that can raise unlimited amounts of money to promote a candidate or a cause (cannot contribute to a candidate)

Presidential Campaigns + Elections

Qualifications:

• 35 years old
• “Natural born” citizen
• Resident of US for 14 years

Terms

• 2 terms, 4 years
• 10 years total
• Originally Unlimited Terms (Was a tradition until FDR)
• 1951: 22nd Amendment fixed ^^

Most have had experience

• 15 were vice presidents
• 19 House Reps
• 16 Senators

Phases of Presidential Elections

1. Winning the Nomination - “Invisible Primary” refers to a candidate’s ability to raise money + interest with the public

2. Caucus - Iowa’s 1st in the nation event to select a candidate/delegates to the state convention

3. Closed Primary - Voting is done by party members only

4. Open Primary - Eligible voters can vote for any candidate regardless of party

5. Super Tuesday - a date in the primary calendar when multiple states hold primaries & caucuses

6. Organizing the Convention

7. “Superdelegates” - party elites who get to vote along with state delegates at a party’s national convention.

8. The winner of the primary is announced & then confirmed by the National Convention. The Vice Presidential candidate is also announced.

9. Party “stars” give speeches and articulate the party’s platform - the issues the party believes are the most important and where they stand on them.

10. The General Election

11. More debates - The two main candidates square-off in televised debates on the issues:

12. The Economy: If the economy is doing poorly - the party holding power suffers

13. Domestic Issues: E2M2 - education, energy, Medicare, and Medicaid. Important issues to many voters,

14. Foreign Policy: Less popular than domestic issues, except in times of war

15. The Electoral College

16. Electors & Electoral Votes (538 total/270 to win)

17. Equal to number of representatives in Congress

18. Chosen by State

19. Since election of 1800 (12th Amendment)

20. Pres & VP ran on same ticket

21. Est. Congress’s role in case of a Tie or Non-majority in the Electoral College

22. Now a customary practice ^^

23. Most states have winner take all electoral votes

24. Problems with the Electoral College

25. Winner of the Popular Vote may not win presidency

26. Plurality of popular votes = All electoral votes (per state)

27. Smaller states get more rep because Electors = HOR + Senate

28. WY: 1 to 190k, CA: 1 to 680k

29. Electors do not have to reflect the popular vote: faithless electors

30. Potential for greater problems

31. If no candidate gets to 270 votes, the HOP decides who becomes president

32. Done by state, not individual

33. If state is divided = no vote

34. Still might not bring majority

Congressional Campaigns & Elections

541 total (535 Voting)

• 100 (Senate), 435 (HOR)
• 6 non-voting territorial delegates
• Puerto Rico, Guam, Am. Samoa, Northern Mariana Islands, Washington DC

On Average

• White (89 in Senate, 343 in House), Male (79 in Senate, 359 in House)
• Upper 50’s (62.2 for Senate, 56.7 HOR)
• Christian (460 total, 304 Protestant)
• Most are college educated (90+%)
• Primary professions: Law, Business, Service/Politics, Ed.

Terms:

• 2 years

• Unlimited terms

• Incumbency advantage: the tendency of Congress members to win reelection in overwhelming numbers

Qualifications:

• At least 25 years old
• Citizen of US for 7 years
• Inhabitant of State they represent

Iowa: Randy Feestra, Cindy Axne, Mairnette Miller-Meeks, Ashley Hinson

Midterm Elections:

• Elections that fall between Presidential Elections

• All of House, ⅓ of Senate

• Typically the party in power loses seats in both chambers

Districts:

• Historically: At-Large

• Voters choose as a whole as many candidates as allotted

• 1842: Congress did away with At Large/General Ticket

• Still: 7 states have 1 representative

• Now: Single-Member District

• State Congress divides state into zones so only 1 person represents allotted amount

Apportionment: # of representatives set by Congress

• 1929 Reapportionment Act set the number at 435
• Each rep = around 715k in (2012)
• All states get at least 1 representative.

Reapportionment:

• After every census, House seats are redistributed based on changes in population

Who runs for Senate?

Iowa: Chuck Grassley & Joni Ernst

Terms:

• Serves 6 years

• ⅓ of the Senate is up for election every 2 years

• Incumbency advantage

• Rep large Constituencies

• Whole state vs district

• More publicity & power

Qualifications:

• At least 30 years old
• US Citizen for 9+ years
• Resident of state they represent

Redistricting:

• Redraws district boundaries
• Based on population change
• Loss of Representation

GERRYMANDERING:

• Redistricting that favors a party/candidate/issue
• Can limit oppositions wins
• Or ensure own victories

Wesberry v Sanders

• Est. districts must be similar in size

Political Parties

What is a political party? - An ongoing coalition of interests joined together to try to get their candidates for public office elected under a common label. What?

 A team of politicians, activists, and voters whose goal is to win control of the government.

Each political party is essentially three parties in one:

1. The party in the electorate (voters who identify with it and support its candidate).
2. The party as candidates (those running for public office).
3. The party as a political organization (staffed and led by party activists).

Why do we have political parties?

• Party competition narrows down people’s options and enables those with differing opinions to render a common judgment. Parties…

• Champion Ideas

• Select Candidates

• Mobilize Voters

• Integrate New Voters into the Process

Party Systems

• The two-party system is seen in America in which only two political parties have a real chance of acquiring control of the government.
• Multi Party Systems in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition.

Party Centered Politics:

• Election campaigns and other political processes in which political parties, not individual candidates, hold most of the initiative and influence.

• Popular in the US prior to the 1968 election of Richard Nixon

• Still popular in Europe

• No primaries

Candidate Centered Politics

• Election campaigns and other political processes in which candidates, not political parties, have most of the initiative and influence.

• Most popular in the US

• On the rise in Europe with far-right political groups whose charisma gives their party legitimacy

Party Organizations

American Party Organizations - the organizational units of the party at national, state and local levels - are the weakest in the world and US candidates are among the most independent

• While American parties don’t have such a clear set of policy choices as class-based European parties, they can offer clear choices at certain times with specific issues

Brief History of Political Parties

1789-1828

1828-1860

1860-1896

Party Realignments - when a party remakes itself with new philosophies, policies, and supporters

Four Main Causes:

1. A powerful & decisive issue
2. Voters overwhelmingly support one party over another
3. A change in policy in response to opposing party’s policies
4. A change in the party coalition - who votes for them

Four Major Realignments:

1. The Civil War Realignment: The Origins of Republican Party

2. Emerges as a grassroots party around the issue of slavery

3. Abraham Lincoln elected president 1860

4. Replace Whigs as the other dominant party

5. Nation’s party system collapsed in 1860 - only time in American history

6. Slavery and union too powerful to be settled peacable through political compromise and competition between parties

7. The 1896 Realignment: Economic panic leads to severe depression

8. The Populist Party 

9. A pro-farmer/factory worker party

10. Challenged Republicans on issues of women’s suffrage, immigration, and business regulation

11. Republicans make huge gains, nation’s dominant party

12. From 1896-1936, only 1 Democrat (Wilson) was elected

13. GOP has majority in Congress - all but 6 years

14. The New Deal Realignment: Herbert Hoover was blamed for the Great Depression

15. Democrats became the country’s majority party:

16. Increased the social and economic role for the national government

17. New Deal Coalition: working class, African Americans, elderly, labor unions, Southern segregationists

18. From 1932-1968: Dwight D. Eisenhower is the only Republican president

19. Realignment of 1968: Change in the Republican Party

20. The Southern Strategy: Use campaign language that reinforces white supremacy

21. Southern Democrats become Republicans

22. The Civil Rights Movement pushed to end Jim Crow and segregation and got more support from the Democratic Party

23. Southern Democrats (Dixiecrats) became upset with this development and begin to convert to the Republican Party

Minority Parties

Have existed throughout history: Conservative, Green, Independent, Liberal Democrats, Labor

• Most form to advocate positions that their followers believe are not being represented by either of the two major parties
• Minor parties that do attract a strong following, force the major parties to address otherwise neglected issues
• Third parties that are similar to a major party may split votes with them

Party Coalitions

• The groups and interests that support a political party

Demographic Groups:

• Gender, Ethnicity, Religion, Income (SES)

Issue Groups:

• Voters united behind an issue (or policy goal)

Interest Groups

• A political interest group is an organization whose goal is to influence government

Pluralist Theory of American politics argues that group activity brings representation to all

• Groups link people & government
• Hyperpluralism: Policymaking is slow because of so many interest groups

Elitist Theory argues that a few wealthy groups have the most power

• Power is held by the largest corporations, which prevail in big decisions.

Types of Interest Groups:

Economic Groups - most common type of interest group in America, they engage in political activity in order to seek favorable economic policies from the government.

• Corporations, labor unions, farm groups, professional organizations

Citizen’s Groups - groups formed to promote a cause they believe in, but doesn’t have direct economic benefits

• Environmental, Prayer in schools, feeding the poor…
• Push for Public Goods - roads, schools, clean air, clean water - available to all
• Free Rider Problem - Someone who benefits but doesn’t contribute (visitors, tourists)

1. Public Interest Groups

2. Attempt to act in the broad interests of society as a whole

3. Seek benefits less tangible and more broadly shared

4. ACLU, ADL, etc

5. League of Women Voters

6. Organized to affect policy in one specific area

7. Examples include…

8. NRA

9. NOW (National Organization of Women - Abortion)

Ideological Groups

• Concerned with a broad range of policies from a general philosophical moral or political stance
• Americans for Prosperity
• Democracy of America