Italy: History, Politics, and Society

Historical Overview
The Basics

  • Population: 58.8 million

    • Compared to Germany (DE): 83 million

    • France (FR): 68 million

    • United Kingdom (UK): 67 million

    • Spain (ES): 48 million

    • Netherlands (NL): 18 million

    • Details: Italy's population is substantial, but not the largest in Europe. Germany and France have larger populations, while the UK is comparable. This demographic context influences Italy's economic and political influence within the EU.

  • Area: 301,000 km²

    • Compared to France: 552,000 km²

    • Spain: 506,000 km²

    • Germany: 357,000 km²

    • UK: 242,000 km²

    • Netherlands: 41,000 km²

    • Details: Italy's geographical area is smaller than France and Spain, but larger than the UK and Germany. Its diverse terrain, including mountains and coastlines, impacts regional development and infrastructure.

  • Population Density: 200 inhabitants/km²

    • Compared to Spain: 92 inhabitants/km²

    • France: 118 inhabitants/km²

    • UK: 272 inhabitants/km²

    • Germany: 232 inhabitants/km²

    • Netherlands: 532 inhabitants/km²

    • Details: Italy's population density is moderate compared to other major European countries. High density in urban areas contrasts with lower density in mountainous regions, affecting resource distribution and urban planning.

  • Rome: 2.6 million inhabitants

    • Compared to London: 8.8 million

    • Berlin: 3.9 million

    • Madrid: 3.3 million

    • Paris: 2.1 million

    • Amsterdam: 0.9 million

    • Details: Rome, as the capital, is a significant urban center, but smaller than London and Berlin. Its historical importance and administrative functions make it a key political and cultural hub.

  • Cities with population above 500,000: 6

    • Compared to Germany: 14

    • UK and Spain: 6 each

    • France and Netherlands: 3 each

    • Details: Italy has a moderate number of large cities compared to Germany, reflecting a more dispersed urban structure. These cities serve as regional economic and cultural centers.

  • System of Governance: A regionalized system

    • Similar to France and the UK.

    • Compared to federal Germany and Spain.

    • In contrast to centralized Netherlands.

    • Details: Italy's regionalized system balances central authority with regional autonomy. This structure addresses regional disparities but can also lead to complexities in policy implementation.

  • GDP per capita: €54,000

    • Compared to Germany: €66,000

    • France: €58,000

    • UK: €56,000

    • Spain: €49,000

    • Netherlands: €73,000

    • Details: Italy's GDP per capita is lower than leading EU economies like Germany and the Netherlands. Economic disparities between Northern and Southern Italy contribute to this overall figure.

  • Religious Homogeneity: Similar to Spain and France

    • Unlike Germany, the UK, and the Netherlands

    • Details: Italy's religious homogeneity, predominantly Catholic, shapes social values and cultural norms, influencing political discourse and public policy.

  • State/Church Cleavage: Secular

    • Details: Despite its religious background, Italy maintains a secular state, ensuring separation of religious and governmental affairs, which is crucial for maintaining a pluralistic society.

Historical Maps

  • 1240 Map: Shows the political landscape of Europe, including various kingdoms, duchies, and other territories.

    • Details: The map illustrates medieval Europe's fragmented political structure, with various kingdoms and territories vying for power. Understanding this landscape provides context for Italy's later unification.

  • 1494 Map: Illustrates the political divisions within Italy and surrounding regions, including the Duchy of Milan, Republic of Venice, and Kingdom of Naples.

    • Details: This map highlights the complex patchwork of city-states and kingdoms in Renaissance Italy. These divisions fostered cultural and economic competition but also hindered political unity.

  • 1796 Map: Displays the changes in political boundaries, with the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Sardinia as prominent entities.

    • Details: The late 18th century saw significant shifts with the rise of empires like Austria and kingdoms like Sardinia. These powers played crucial roles in shaping Italy's future.

  • 1815 Map: Shows the political reorganization after the Napoleonic Wars, with the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Austrian Empire controlling significant portions of Italy.

    • Details: Following Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna reorganized Europe, leaving much of Italy under Austrian influence. The Kingdom of Sardinia emerged as a key player in the subsequent unification movement.

The Unification

  • 1858-1859: Second Independence War against Austria.

    • Details: This war was pivotal in reducing Austrian influence and setting the stage for unification. The alliance with France was crucial for Sardinia's success.

  • 1860: Referenda in Central Italy.

    • Details: These referenda demonstrated popular support for joining the Kingdom of Sardinia, legitimizing the unification process.

The Expedition of the Thousand

  • 1860-1861: Depicts Garibaldi's campaign and the route taken by his forces.

    • Details: Garibaldi's military campaign in Southern Italy was instrumental in bringing the region under Sardinian control, overcoming Bourbon resistance.

The Process of Italian Unification: Key Takeaways

  1. Italy was divided for centuries before unification.

  2. Favorable international conditions enabled the unification.

    • Details: Factors such as British support and French involvement played a crucial role.

  3. The Risorgimento was crucial but remained an elite movement.

    • Details: Figures like Mazzini and Cavour shaped the movement, but popular participation was limited.

  4. Unification was more of an extension of the Kingdom of Sardinia.

    • Details: The Kingdom of Sardinia's political and military power formed the basis of the unified state.

A Young Country: Some Crucial Dates

  • 1861: The Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed.

  • 1861-1922: 'Liberal' Italy.

    • Details: This period saw the establishment of parliamentary institutions and economic modernization, but also social inequalities and political instability.

  • 1922: Mussolini takes power.

  • 1922-1943: 'Fascist' Italy.

    • Details: Mussolini's regime brought authoritarian rule, state control of the economy, and aggressive foreign policy.

  • 1946: Italy becomes a Republic.

    • Details: The monarchy was abolished after a referendum, marking a new chapter in Italian history.

  • 1948: A new Constitution is set in place.

    • Details: The Constitution established a democratic republic with checks and balances, safeguarding against future dictatorships.

  • 1948-1994: Italy's 'First' Republic.

    • Details: Characterized by coalition governments, Christian Democratic dominance, and economic growth, but also corruption and political violence.

  • 1994-: Italy's 'Second' Republic.

    • Details: Marked by political realignment, the rise of new parties, and ongoing debates about institutional reform.

«Liberal» Italy (1861-1922)

  • "Italy is made. Now we must make the Italians."

  • Challenges included building a nation-state with no common language or background.

    • Details: Regional differences and lack of national identity posed significant obstacles to creating a cohesive Italian society.

«Liberal» Italy: Key Conflicts

  • Questione Romana (The Roman Question)

    • Conflict: State vs. Catholic Church.

    • Based on: Religion (education, territorial possessions, etc.).

    • Details: The conflict over the Papal States and the role of the Church in Italian society shaped political and social dynamics.

  • Questione Meridionale (The Southern Question)

    • Conflict: Center (North) vs. Periphery (South).

    • Based on: Territory (cultural, social, and economic diversity).

    • Details: Economic disparities and social differences between Northern and Southern Italy led to persistent regional tensions.

  • Questione Sociale (The Social Question)

    • Conflict: Bourgeoisie vs. Working class.

    • Based on: Class (salaries, working conditions, union rights, etc.).

    • Details: Industrialization and urbanization created social tensions between the emerging working class and the established bourgeoisie.

Map of Italian Regions by GDP per Capita (2015)

  • Visual representation of GDP per capita in euros for 2015.

  • Also shows industry distribution by region.

    • Details: highlights economic disparities, with regions like Lombardy and Trentino-Alto Adige having significantly higher GDP per capita than Calabria or Sicily. The concentration of industry in the North is also evident.

Regional Institutional Performance and Civic Traditions

  • Presents the correlation between institutional performance and civic traditions in Italian regions.

  • 1978-1985 Institutional Performance in the Italian Regions

    • Highest Performance

    • Average Performance

    • Lowest Performance

    • Details: Regions with strong civic traditions, such as Tuscany and Emilia-Romagna, often exhibit better institutional performance due to higher levels of social trust and cooperation.

  • 1860-1920 Civic Traditions in the Italian Regions

    • Most Civic

    • Average

    • Least Civic

    • Details: Historical factors, such as the legacy of self-governance in Northern Italy, have contributed to stronger civic engagement compared to the South.

Regional Institutional Performance and Form of Government in 1300

  • Correlates institutional performance with the form of government in Italian regions around 1300.

  • Includes communal republics, ex-communal republics, papal states and the Kingdom of Sicily.

    • Details: The legacy of communal republics in regions like Tuscany and Lombardy fostered a tradition of civic participation and institutional innovation, while regions under autocratic rule experienced weaker institutional development.

Why Do Some Communities Remain Economically and Politically Underdeveloped?

  • Edward C. Banfield's "Amoral Familism"

    • Key Argument: Economic & social stagnation is due to a cultural mindset prioritizing family over civic duty.

    • Leads to distrust, short-term thinking, and lack of cooperation.

    • Case Study: Montegrano, a poor village in Southern Italy.

    • Characteristics of Amoral Familism:

      • Distrust of outsiders and government institutions.

      • Lack of cooperation beyond the immediate family.

      • Short-term thinking and absence of civic engagement.

    • Impact: Hinders collective action, economic investment, and effective governance.

    • Consequences:

      • Distrust of outsiders & institutions (government, businesses, organizations).

      • No long-term planning-people only focus on immediate family survival, not future growth.

      • Lack of cooperation beyond family → No strong civil society or economic investment

    • Historical Context

      • Post-War Italy and Underdevelopment. (Banfield’s study was in 1958.)

      • Northern Italy: industrialized, economically prosperous, politically engaged.

      • Southern Italy (Mezzogiorno): rural, poorer, weaker government institutions.

      • Government and Marshall Plan were investing in development.

    • Details: Banfield's theory suggests that cultural factors can significantly impact economic and political development, particularly in regions with weak social capital.

  • Criticism of Banfield's Argument:

    • Too much focus on culture? Some argue that poverty, corruption, and weak institutions are bigger reasons for underdevelopment.

    • Lack of comparisons - Banfield didn't study other poor regions to see if the same patterns existed.

    • Details: Critics argue that Banfield's cultural determinism overlooks structural factors such as government corruption and economic exploitation.

  • Alternative Explanations:

    • Institutional Failures - Corrupt governments, lack of infrastructure, poor leadership.

    • Economic Dependency - Rich countries exploit poorer ones, keeping them underdeveloped.

    • Details: Alternative theories emphasize the role of institutional reforms and fair economic policies in promoting development.

Fascist Italy (1922-1943)

  • 1919-1920: The 'Red Biennium' - Factory occupations, Italy on the brink of a communist revolution.

    • Details: The 'Red Biennium' was a period of intense social unrest and labor militancy, fueled by post-war economic hardship and socialist agitation.

  • Industrialists, landowners, and the middle class turned to the paramilitary Fascist movement to protect their interests.

    • Details: These groups saw Fascism as a bulwark against socialism and communism, providing financial and political support to Mussolini's movement.

  • 1922: 'March on Rome' - Mussolini appointed executive leader.

    • Details: The 'March on Rome' was a show of force by the Fascists, leading to Mussolini's appointment as Prime Minister and the establishment of a dictatorial regime.

  • Fascism was not a coherent ideology, but its main ingredients were:

    1. Nationalism

    2. Corporatism

    3. Militarism

    4. Expansionism

      • Details: Fascism combined elements of nationalism, state control of the economy, military build-up, and territorial ambitions, creating a totalitarian system.

The Italian Political System
1946 Referendum

  • Republic won with 54.3% of the vote.

  • 89.1% voter turnout.

    • Details: The referendum marked the end of the monarchy and the beginning of the Italian Republic, reflecting a desire for democratic governance after the Fascist era.

  • 1946-1947: Constitution drafted.

  • 1948: Constitution enacted.

    • Details: The Constitution established a parliamentary republic with a strong emphasis on individual rights and social justice, preventing the rise of future dictatorships.

The Italian Parliamentary System

  1. Parliament Dominates

    • The "Republic of parties"

    • Parties created the Republic, and they ruled it.

    • Details: Political parties played a central role in shaping the Italian Republic, influencing policy-making and government formation.

    • Executive branch

    • Multi-party system: coalitions found in Parliament

    • Details: The multi-party system necessitated coalition governments, leading to political instability and frequent changes in leadership.

  2. Very Weak Cabinets

    • …lasting less than a year on average

    • Members of the legislature

    • "Tyrant syndrome"

    • Details: Short-lived cabinets and a fear of strong executive power contributed to a fragmented and unstable political landscape.

The Constitutional Model

  • After the Fascist regime, fear that a dictatorship might happen again haunted the Constitution makers:

    • «Tyrant syndrome»

    • Details: The experience of Fascism led to a constitutional design that aimed to prevent the concentration of power and protect individual liberties.

  • Attempt to clearly define and limit the role and functions of the cabinet to prevent future possible stretching and takeovers.

  • However, the constitutional text remains quite short and vague.

  • Nevertheless, it clearly provides for a strong system of checks on the cabinet's activity by both Parliament and the President of the Republic.

Parliament

  • Bicameral: House of Deputies, Senate of the Republic

    1. House: 400 members (630 until 2022) to represent the Italian people, elected by the Italian people

    2. Senate: 200 members (315 until 2022) to represent the Italian people, elected by the Italian people

      • Details: The bicameral system ensures that legislation undergoes thorough review, but can also lead to gridlock and delays.

  • Unlike ES, DE, FR, UK, NL: symmetrical bicameral legislature.

  • As in the US, all bills are approved by both Chambers.

  • Both politically control the executive (through standard vote of no confidence).

Basic Elements of the System of Government in the Constitution

  • Collegial cabinet model with Prime Minister as a coordinator.

  • Council of Ministers formed by PM and other ministers.

  • President of the Republic appoints PM and, on his/her proposal, other ministers.

  • PM cannot remove individual ministers.

  • The cabinet depends on Parliament (explicit confidence vote to the cabinet by both chambers; always possible no-confidence vote in either chamber).

  • Legislative prerogatives assigned to cabinet decrees.

  • Parliament dismissal attributed to President of the Republic not as a consequence of a political choice, but because of impossibility to form a majority.

  • Parliamentary regulations traditionally unfavorable to the cabinet.

  • Great autonomy of Chambers in setting their own agenda.

Timeline of Italian Leaders (1950-2020)

  • A visual representation displaying the succession of Prime Ministers in Italy from 1950 to 2020.

    • Details: The frequent changes in Prime Ministers reflect the instability of Italian politics and the challenges of maintaining stable coalition governments.

The President of the Republic

  • Head of the state = Presidente della Repubblica

    • (but not head of government)

    • Details: The President serves as a non-partisan figurehead, symbolizing national unity and upholding the Constitution.

  • Represents national unity, Guardian of the Constitution.

  • powers:

    • In clear political situations, limited room for maneuvering

    • In turbulent contexts, he becomes much more powerful

    • Details: The President's influence varies depending on the political climate, with greater power during times of crisis and instability.

  • Elected by Parliament (both Chambers) plus regional delegates

    • ➤In the first three ballots, 23\frac{2}{3} of the electoral college members are required; from the fourth ballot on, a simple majority of members is required.

    • Details: The election process ensures broad representation and requires consensus-building among political forces.

  • Term is 7 years, with no constitutional limit on the number of terms.

Constitutional Powers of the President of the Republic

  • Appoints the Prime Minister and other ministers (art. 92).

  • Can dissolve the Parliament (88).

  • Calls for new legislative elections (87).

  • Appoints up to 5 senators for life (59).

  • Authorizes executive bill proposals to be sent to Parliament (87).

  • Issues decrees (87).

  • Ratifies laws, or sends them back to Parliament with a motivated message (74).

  • Can send messages to Parliament (87).

  • Appoints a third of the members of the Constitutional Court (135).

  • Chairs the High Council of the Judiciary (87).

  • Grants pardons and honors (87).

  • Commander-in-chief of armed forces (87).

The Presidents of the Italian Republic

  • A slide with a visual depiction of past Italian Presidents.

The Italian Regions and Provinces

  • Italy is a unitary system which has recently regionalized:

    • 15 regions with an ordinary statute

    • 5 regions with a special statute (Aosta Valley, Trentino-Alto Adige, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Sardinia, Sicily)

    • 107 provinces

    • 7,901 municipalities

    • Details: The regionalized system allows for local autonomy and responsiveness to regional needs, but can also create disparities in service delivery and economic development.

Recent Electoral Developments
"Five Stars and a Cricket"

  • Comedian Beppe Grillo leads new party emergence on the Italian political scene (2013).

    • History:

      • Founder: Beppe Grillo (anti-establishment)

      • Established: 2009

      • Successful Blog: beppegrillo.it

    • Political Message/Critique:

      • Environmentalism

      • Anti-large industrial groups

      • "Corrupt" news media

      • "Neither left or right" (leans right)

      • Very Charismatic

    • 2012 Success: Movimento 5 Stelle

    • Italian party system crisis

      • Rise of anti-political sentiment

      • Western European economic crisis

      • Local "secondary" elections

    • Future Challenges:

      • Anti-party stance, but is a substantial party

      • Very heterogeneous beliefs, hard to make policies

    • Details: The Five Star Movement capitalizes on anti-establishment sentiment and offers a mix of environmentalist and populist policies, appealing to a diverse electorate.

Political Deadlock in Italy: The 2013 Election

  • Key Concepts:

    • The election followed the Eurozone crisis and the technocratic government of Mario Monti.

    • Italy's electoral system awarded a majority bonus to the largest coalition, leading to a fragmented parliament.

    • Details: The complex electoral system and economic challenges contributed to political instability and the rise of new political forces.

  • Election Result:

    • No clear majority in Senate - political deadlock.

    • Forced formation of a coalition government, maintaining the status quo.

  • Berlusconi's Comeback:

    • Used media dominance & populist messaging to recover from low polling.

    • Promised tax refunds (IMU), shifting public opinion.

  • Center-Left's Weak Campaign:

    • PD (Democratic Party) led by Bersani underperformed expectations.

    • Failed to mobilize young voters & suffered from financial scandals.

  • Rise of M5S (Five Star Movement):

    • Anti-establishment party led by Beppe Grillo gained 25.6% of votes (largest single party).

    • Attracted disillusioned voters from both left and right.

    Garzia's Review: "The election results revealed a system where change was largely symbolic rather than substantive."

Chamber of Deputies - 2018 Election Results

  • Lists and Coalitions:

    • Centre-Right: ≈37.0\approx 37.0\

    • Movimento 5 Stelle (M5S): ≈32.7\approx 32.7\

    • Centre-Left: ≈22.9\approx 22.9\

    • Liberi e Uguali (LEU): ≈3.4\approx 3.4\

    • Others: ≈4.1\approx 4.1\

  • Total: 32,906,425

Results of 2022 Italian General Election

  • Includes data for both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.

  • Vote percentages, seats allocated via proportional representation (PR), first-past-the-post (FPTP), and seats for abroad.

  • Lists and coalitions: Fratelli d'Italia (FDI), Lega, Forza Italia (FI), Noi Moderati (NM), Partito Democratico (PD), etc