Adolescence - Gender

Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

• Biological Influences:
  • Puberty intensifies sexual aspects of gender attitudes and behavior.
  • Young adolescents incorporate sexuality into their gender attitudes and behaviors.
  • Few attempts relate puberty's sexual changes to gender behavior.
  • Sexual behavior is linked to hormonal changes during puberty.
  • Freud and Erikson:
    • Anatomy is destiny; genitals influence gender behavior.
    • Freud: Gender and sexual behavior are unlearned and instinctual.
    • Erikson: Extended Freud's argument but later modified his views.
    • Critics: Experience isn't given enough credit; individuals have more freedom in choosing gender roles.
  • Evolutionary Psychology:
    • Differing roles in reproduction led to different pressures in primeval environments.
    • This explains key gender differences in sexual attitudes and behavior.
    • Critics: Hypotheses are speculative, not evidentiary; the view pays little attention to environmental experiences.

Social Influences on Gender

• Social Role Theory (Alice Eagly):
  • Gender differences result from contrasting roles of females and males.
  • Females have less power, status, and control of resources.
  • Adapted to these roles, women are more cooperative and less dominant.
• Parental Influence:
  • Parents influence gender development through action and example.
  • Boys are allowed more independence than girls.
  • Differential achievement expectations exist, especially in math and science.
  • Mothers socialize girls to be obedient and responsible.
  • Fathers engage in more activities with sons and promote intellectual development.
• Social Cognitive Theory:
  • Gender development is influenced by:
    • Observation and imitation of others’ gender behavior
    • Rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior
• Sibling Influence:
  • Younger siblings become more similar to older siblings in gender role and leisure activity.
• Peer Influence:
  • Peers model masculine and feminine behavior.
  • Adolescents spend increasing amounts of time with peers.
  • Peer approval or disapproval is a powerful influence.
  • Peers socialize gender behavior through acceptance or rejection based on gender-related attributes.
• School and Teacher Influence:
  • Compliance, following rules, and neatness are valued and reinforced, favoring girls.
  • Boys are more likely to have learning disabilities or ADHD, drop out, and be criticized.
  • Girls' compliance can diminish assertiveness.
  • Single-sex education vs. coed education has mixed research evidence.
• Mass Media Influence:
  • TV shows are stereotyped in portrayal of the sexes, especially teenage girls.
  • Music videos are also highly stereotyped.
  • Early adolescence is a period of heightened sensitivity to TV messages about gender roles.
  • The media influences body images; studies reveal gender differences.
  • Internet and social media exposure increase body dissatisfaction.

Cognitive Influences on Gender

• Social cognitive theory emphasizes observation, imitation, rewards, and punishment.
• Critics argue this explanation pays too little attention to the adolescent’s own mind and understanding.
• Gender Schema Theory:
  • Gender-typing emerges as children develop gender schemas.
  • A gender schema organizes the world in terms of males and females.
  • Children are internally motivated to act according to their developing schemas.

Gender Stereotypes, Similarities, and Differences

• How pervasive is gender stereotyping?
• What are the real differences between boys/men and girls/women, and why is this issue such a controversial one?

Gender Stereotyping

• Gender stereotypes: broad categories that reflect impressions and beliefs about females and males
• Research: gender stereotypes are present in today’s world.
• Boys’ gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls’.
• Traits:
  • Boys/men: instrumental.
  • Girls/women: expressive.

Gender Similarities and Differences

• Differences are average and do not apply to all individuals.
• Overlap exists between sexes, especially in cognitive and socioemotional development.
• Differences may be due to biological, sociocultural factors, or both.

Physical

• Girls/women have twice the body fat of men.
• Boys/men grow taller and have greater physical strength.
• Many physical differences are tied to health.

Brain

• Research is mostly on adults, not children/adolescents.
• Some gender differences exist in brain structure/function, but these are small or inconsistent.
• Differences have not been directly linked to psychological differences.

Cognitive

• No gender differences occur in overall intellectual ability
• Boys outperform girls on visuospatial skills.
• Girls outperform boys in reading and writing.
• Cognitive differences have been exaggerated (Janet Shibley Hyde).
• Achievement measures and test scores reflect factors besides cognitive ability.
• Dropout rates: boys are more likely to drop out than girls.
• College enrollment: girls are more likely to enroll than boys (since 1996).
• STEM careers: favor boys/men.
• Gender and ethnicity intersect to create systems of power, privilege, and discrimination.

Socioemotional

• Boys/men and girls/women are not vastly different.
• Aggression:
  • Boys/men are more physically aggressive.
  • Relational aggression is a greater percentage of girls’ overall aggression.
• Communication:
  • Differences exist in play, communication, and self-disclosure.
  • Rapport talk (establishing connections) is favored by girls/women.
  • Report talk (giving information) is used more by boys/men.
• Prosocial Behavior:
  • Girls see themselves as more prosocial and empathetic.
  • Girls demonstrate more prosocial behavior and show more empathy.
• Emotion and Regulation:
  • Girls/women express more emotion, decode emotions better, smile/cry more, and are happier.
  • Better at facial emotion perception.
  • Boys aged 13–16 show less self-regulation, leading to behavior problems.

Gender Controversy

• Evolutionary psychologists (David Buss): Gender differences are extensive, caused by adaptive problems across evolutionary history.
• Alice Eagly: Gender differences are substantial, due to social conditions where women have less power and resources.
• Janet Shibley Hyde: Gender differences have been greatly exaggerated.
• Research: Gender differences in adolescence are quite small in most areas.

Gender in Context

• Gender behavior varies across contexts and cultures.

Gender Role Classification

• Emphasis on flexibility and equality in gender roles.

Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny

• Past:
  • Well-adjusted boy/man: independent, aggressive, powerful.
  • Well-adjusted girl/woman: dependent, nurturing, uninterested in power.
  • Masculine traits were considered healthy; feminine traits were undesirable.
• 1970s: Alternatives to traditional roles were explored due to dissatisfaction.
• Androgyny:
  • Presence of high degree of masculine and feminine characteristics in the same individual.
  • Androgynous individuals are more flexible and mentally healthy (Bem).
• Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI):
  • Measures masculinity and femininity on a 7-point scale.
  • Examples of masculine items: defends own beliefs, forceful, willing to take risks, dominant, aggressive.
  • Examples of feminine items: does not use harsh language, affectionate, loves children, understanding, gentle.
• Gender Role Classification:
  • Androgynous: High in both feminine and masculine traits.
  • Feminine: High in feminine, low in masculine traits.
  • Masculine: High in masculine, low in feminine traits.
  • Undifferentiated: Low in both feminine and masculine traits.

Context, Culture, and Gender Roles

• Gender role classification involves a personality-trait-like categorization.
• Consider personality in terms of traits and contexts.
• Culturally prescribed behaviors vary for girls/women and boys/men in different countries.
• In the U.S. over the last 30–40 years, a decline in adoption of traditional gender roles has occurred. Percentage of first-year U.S. college students agreeing with the statement, “The activities of married women are best confined to home and family” from 1967 through 2005 declined from 65% for males and 45% for females in 1967, to about 27% of males and 15% of females by 2005.
• Traditional gender roles continue to dominate many cultures.
• Access to education for girls has improved worldwide, but still lags behind boys.
• Despite gender gaps, evidence of increasing gender equality appears.

Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in Adolescent Boys

• Negative side to traditional masculinity.
• William Pollack (Real Boys): Little has been done to change the “boy code.”
• Boys are socialized to not show feelings and act tough.
• Benefits for boys: express anxieties/concerns, regulate aggression.
• Strong masculine role adoption is associated with problem behaviors.
• Joseph Pleck: Traditional masculinity includes socially unapproved behaviors that validate masculinity.
  • Premarital sex
  • Alcohol and drugs
  • Illegal delinquent activities

Gender Role Transcendence

• Androgyny is less of a panacea than envisioned.
• Gender role transcendence: Competence should be conceptualized on a personal basis rather than on gender.

Transgender

• Broad term: Individuals whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth.
• Better term: Trans or gender diverse.
• Variety: Binary and nonbinary (e.g., gender queer or gender nonconforming).
• Two-spirit: Used by some indigenous North Americans.
• Cisgender: Identity and expression conform to sex assigned at birth.
• Orientation: Transgender individuals can have any sexual orientation.
• Transgender youth have higher rates of mental health issues, but gender affirmation reduces these.
• The majority eventually adopt a gender identity in line with the body into which they were born.
• Some seek gender-affirming surgery or hormonal treatments.
• Others challenge the traditional view of having a gender identity that fits within one of two opposing categories.
• Discrimination is a special concern.
  • The majority of transgender individuals experienced discrimination in the last year.
  • Those with greater exposure to discrimination were more likely to develop depression and anxiety symptoms.

Going Beyond Gender as Binary

• Challenging the long-existing concept of two categories.
• Janet Shibley Hyde:
  • Neuroscience: Gender mosaic rather than highly different brains.
  • Endocrinology: More hormonal similarities than previously envisioned.
  • New gender identity categories.
  • Developmental research: Tendency to view gender as binary is culturally determined and malleable.

Early Adolescence and Gender Intensification

• Intensification in gender-related expectations with the onset of puberty.
• Gender Intensification Hypothesis:
  • Psychological and behavioral differences become greater due to socialization pressures to conform.
• Validity is uncertain; recent research raises questions.
• As adolescents grow older, they show less stereotypic gender behavior.

Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Females?

• Carol Gilligan: Girls experience life differently; they have a “different voice.”
• Early adolescence: Girls become aware that the male-dominated culture does not value their intense interest in intimacy.
• Dilemma: Girls are presented with a choice that makes them appear either selfish or selfless.
• As young girls struggle with this dilemma, they begin to “silence” their “different voice.”
  • Criticisms:
    • Gilligan and her colleagues overemphasize differences in gender.
    • Gilligan’s research strategy rarely includes a comparison group of boys or statistical analysis.
    • Gilligan’s findings reinforce stereotypes.
• Increasing evidence that adolescence is a critical juncture in the psychological development of females.
• Some psychologists conclude, however, that gender differences in self-esteem during adolescence are quite small.