Foreign and Domestic Issues of the 1990s and Early 2000s

Foreign and Domestic Issues of the 1990s

Key Concept

11.11a The United States created a coalition to defeat Iraq in the Persian Gulf War in 1991, but was reluctant to commit American military power through the rest of the decade.

Lesson Overview

Background

In 1988, George H.W. Bush (41), a conservative Republican from Texas, defeated Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis for the presidency. Having served as Reagan's vice president, Bush (41) faced the complexities of the end of the Cold War. He served one term before being defeated by Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton. Both of these presidents contended with the challenge known as the Vietnam Syndrome, which refers to the American public's reluctance to engage in military interventions after the Vietnam War fiasco.

Major Themes

As you review this lesson, take special note of the following themes:

  • Time, Continuity, and Change: Focus on domestic and international conflicts faced by the United States during this period.

  • Power, Authority, and Governance: Analyze how the U.S. government exercised its power both domestically and internationally, including cases of inaction.

  • Global Connections and Exchange: Explore how cultural values from different societies conflicted with American values.

Key Figures

  • George H.W. Bush: 41st President of the United States

  • Saddam Hussein: Iraqi leader during the Gulf War

  • Ross Perot: Independent candidate in the 1992 presidential election

Key Terms and Events

  • Vietnam Syndrome: American reluctance for military involvement post-Vietnam War.

  • Persian Gulf War: Conflict between Iraq and a coalition led by the United States to eject Iraq from Kuwait.

  • Ethnic Cleansing: Genocidal policies during conflicts, particularly in the Balkans.

  • Bill Clinton: 42nd President of the United States, who succeeded George H.W. Bush.

  • Madeleine K. Albright: First female Secretary of State under Clinton.

  • NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement, promoting trade among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.

  • GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, an international trade agreement.

  • World Trade Organization (WTO): Established to oversee global trade agreements.

The George H.W. Bush (41) Administration

Economic Context

  • By 1990, issues with savings and loan institutions caused the American taxpayers to bailout the failing sector, costing hundreds of billions of dollars.

  • An economic recession by 1992 led to rising unemployment and layoffs.

Domestic Events

  • Supreme Court Appointments: Two justices were appointed: David Souter (1990) and Clarence Thomas (1991). Thomas's confirmation hearings were marked by allegations of sexual harassment by Anita Hill.

  • Economic Troubles: Despite campaigning on a promise of “no new taxes,” Bush raised taxes in 1990 due to mounting budget deficits.

Foreign Events

  • Focus on Foreign Affairs: The end of the Cold War reshaped global dynamics and U.S. involvement in the Middle East.

End of the Cold War

  • November 1989 saw the fall of the Berlin Wall, marking a shift in global political dynamics and the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe.

  • The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

The Vietnam Syndrome

  • The term describes a national hesitance to engage in military conflict due to the repercussions of the Vietnam War, which resulted in over 58,000 U.S. casualties.

Invasion of Panama

  • In December 1989, Bush ordered military intervention in Panama to capture General Manuel Noriega, leading to his eventual sentencing in the U.S.

Persian Gulf War

  • In August 1990, after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, the U.S. launched Operation Desert Shield to build a coalition and prepared for military action.

  • Operation Desert Storm commenced in January 1991, involving over 500,000 U.S. troops and resulted in a swift victory; however, losses included 300 Allied lives and an estimated 100,000 Iraqi deaths.

Election of 1992

  • Candidates: Bill Clinton (Democrat) won with 43% of the popular vote, Ross Perot (Independent) took 19%, and George H.W. Bush garnered 38%.

  • Clinton campaigned on economic issues and foreign relations, especially regarding Bosnia.

  • The election marked an increase in minority representation in Congress, with record numbers of African American and female candidates elected.

The Bill Clinton Administration (1993-2001)

Domestic Issues

  • Health Care Reform: Clinton’s 1993 proposal aimed to provide coverage for all Americans but faced criticism and was rejected by Congress in 1994.

  • Social Security Challenges: The aging demographic (baby boomers) raised concerns about the long-term viability of Social Security, prompting discussions on reform.

  • Supreme Court Appointees: Clinton nominated Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer, marking significant appointments in a long Democratic absence.

Foreign Issues

  • Balkans Conflict: Ethnic tensions led to violence during the 1990s. Clinton’s administration intervened during the crises, including NATO actions in Bosnia and Kosovo.

  • Haiti Intervention: Clinton ordered military action to restore a legitimate government in Haiti amid political turmoil.

  • NAFTA: Signed in 1993, NAFTA was a significant trade agreement promoting commerce between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico, later renegotiated as USMCA under Trump.

  • Rwanda Genocide: Clinton faced criticism for the U.S. inaction during the 1994 genocide, which resulted in over a million deaths.

Economic Prosperity and Scandals

  • Economic Growth: The 1990s saw unprecedented economic expansion, leading to budget surpluses.

  • Impeachment: Clinton was impeached in 1998 over perjury and obstruction of justice but was acquitted by the Senate, maintaining his popularity.

Historic Appointment

  • Madeleine K. Albright became the first female Secretary of State in January 1997.

The War on Terror and Other Policies of the Early 2000s

Impact of September 11, 2001

  • The attacks led to the declaration of a War on Terror, fundamentally reshaping U.S. domestic and foreign policy.

Key Participants

  • George W. Bush: 43rd President of the United States.

  • Osama bin Laden: Leader of al-Qaeda and architect of the September 11 attacks.

Legislative Actions

  • USA Patriot Act: Enacted in response to the attacks, this legislation expanded government powers for surveillance and law enforcement in counter-terrorism efforts.

  • Department of Homeland Security: Established to coordinate national efforts against terrorism.

Military Engagements

  • War in Afghanistan: Initiated after the U.S. demanded the Taliban hand over bin Laden; ultimately led to prolonged military involvement.

  • Iraq War: The invasion in 2003 stemmed from allegations of Saddam Hussein harboring weapons of mass destruction, leading to significant geopolitical fallout and domestic criticism.

Shortcomings and Controversies

  • Ongoing conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan raised questions on military strategy and outcomes.

  • Reports of prisoner abuse and civil unrest led to investigations, affecting public perception of military actions during this period.

Economic Context

  • Bush's administration faced economic challenges exacerbated by the wars and the subsequent Great Recession, leading to debates over economic policy and federal spending.