British Test Notes

THE ROYAL FAMILY

• The monarch: Head of State. The UK operates as a constitutional monarchy without a single written constitution.

• The constitution:

  • Acts of Parliament: Legal statutes that establish laws.

  • Conventions: Unwritten traditions and universally accepted assumptions about governance, typically based on precedent.

POWERS OF THE MONARCH

• The Monarch can:

  • Summon, dissolve, and prorogue Parliament (suspend until the next session).

  • Appoint cabinet ministers (including the Prime Minister), judges, officers, diplomats, and bishops.

  • Confer honours such as peerages and knighthoods.

  • Pardon convicted criminals.

  • Declare war and make peace with an enemy power, all on the advice of the Prime Minister.

LEGALISATION OF LAWS

• For a bill to become law:

  • Must be voted on by the House of Commons.

  • Must be voted on by the House of Lords.

  • Finally, it must receive Royal Assent from the Monarch, which theoretically grants a veto power; however, no Monarch has refused Royal Assent since $1708$.

GLORIOUS REVOLUTION ($1688$-$1689$)

• Significant events:

  • John Churchill allied with William of Orange.

  • William entered London without a fight; James II fled to France.

  • William III and Mary II were declared joint King and Queen by Parliament.

• The Bill of Rights $1689$:

  • The King cannot raise taxes or maintain a standing army without Parliament’s consent.

  • It prohibits the punishment of MPs for actions or speeches made in Parliament.

  • Judges are not immune from prosecution.

• The Acts of Settlement $1701$:

  • Prohibits Catholics from sitting on the throne.

  • Disinherited James (The Old Pretender); succession rules altered to prevent Catholic ascension.

QUEEN VICTORIA AND HER DESCENDANTS

• Key Descendants:

  • Queen Victoria: $1837$-$1901$, ruled during the victorian era, married to Prince Albert, second longest reining monarch

  • Edward VII: $1901$-$1910$, known as “the Uncle of Europe”.

  • George V: $1910$-$1936$, changed the family name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in $1917$.

  • Edward VIII: Abdicated in $1936$ due to marriage to Wallis Simpson.

  • George VI: $1936$-$1952$, led Britain through WWII, had a speech defect, was shy

  • Queen Elizabeth II: $1926$-$2022$, Daughter of George VI, longest-reigning monarch, became queen aged 25, married to Prince Philip Mountbatten

CHILDREN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH II

• King Charles III: Became king in $2022$, formerly married to Lady Diana Spencer.

• Princess Anne: Known for equestrian achievements; divorced and remarried.

• Prince Andrew: Married Sarah Ferguson; involved in scandals; has two daughters.

• Prince Edward: Married Sophie Rhys-Jones; avoided major scandals.

BRITISH GOVERNMENT

• Constitutional Monarchy: The Monarch serves as head of state, while real political power lies with Parliament, which requires the Monarch to remain neutral.

• Cabinet System: Comprised of senior government ministers led by the Prime Minister, it makes key decisions and policies.

• Prime Minister (PM):

  • Leader of the party with the most Members of Parliament (MPs), chosen by Parliament.

  • First PM: Robert Walpole ($1721$-$1742$). Historical shift in power from monarch to Parliament during the Hanoverian dynasty.

• Hanoverian Dynasty:

  • Began with George I which spoke little English

  • Power shifted from monarch to Parliament

  • Strengthened role of the Prime Minister

CABINET

• The Cabinet was developed for efficiency as it replaced meetings of the full Privy Council. Members are chosen by the Prime Minister, and while all Cabinet members are part of the Privy Council, it convenes infrequently.

KEY CABINET ROLES

• Secretary of State for Defence.

• Secretary of State for Education.

• Secretary of State for Health.

• Secretary of State for Transport.

IMPORTANT DEPARTMENTS

• The Chancellor of the Exchequer: manages the economy

• The Foreign and Commonwealth Office: deals with foreign affairs

• The Home Office: responsible for crime, policing and immigration

• Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA): Environment, farming, fisheries, clmate issues

CIVIL SERVICE

• The Civil Service executes the practical functions of government.

  • Civil servants are politically neutral and remain in their roles during governmental transitions.

  • They are loyal to current ministers, implementing rather than making policies.

  • The most senior civil servant is the Permanent Secretary.

• The Shadow Government: Composed of opposition party members, it critiques the government, prepares to assume power, and each minister is shadowed by an opposition MP.

CURRENT POLITICAL LEADERS

• Prime Minister: Keir Starmer.

• Chancellor of the Exchequer: Rachel Reeves.

• Leader of the Conservative Party: Kemi Badenoch.

• Leader of Reform UK: Nigel Farage.

• Speaker of the House of Commons: Lindsay Hoyle.

PARLIAMENT STRUCTURE

• Composed of three parts: The Monarch, House of Commons, and House of Lords.

• Role of Parliament: Enacts laws, debates issues, and oversees government actions.

HOUSE OF COMMONS

• Comprised of elected MPs, who:

  • Debate and vote on legislation.

  • Question the Prime Minister and ministers.

  • Represent local constituencies.

• Seating arrangement promotes confrontation, with Government and Opposition sitting opposite one another.

• There are 650 MPs, but only about 380 seats.

HOUSE OF LORDS

• Members serve unelected roles, consisting of life peers and bishops, tasked with revising and improving legislation and acting as a check on the Commons.

HOUSE OF COMMONS CUSTOMS

• Customs include members formally addressing each other and starting parliamentary days with prayer.

• Voting is termed a division with two lobbies (Aye and No), and whips guide MPs on party votes, signifying various levels of attendance required for votes.

VOTING PROCESS

• MPs vote by entering the appropriate lobby after a bell rings, allowing eight minutes to reach the chamber.

• Pairing System: When an MP cannot attend a vote, a paired MP from the opposition will refrain from voting, preserving proportional representation.

Benchers and Whips

Two types of Benchers

• Frontbenchers – ministers and shadow ministers

• Backbenchers – MPs without government roles

Type of Whips

• One-line whip: attendance optional

• Two-line whip: important vote

• Three-line whip: very important, MPs must attend

LEGISLATIVE PROCESS

• Bill Stages:

  • First Reading: Formal introduction, no debate.

  • Second Reading: Debate on the main principles, followed by voting.

  • Committee Stage: Detailed examination and possible amendments.

  • Report Stage: Amendments debated by the entire House.

  • Third Reading: Final debate and vote.

  • House of Lords: Same process repeats; bills may enter a ping-pong phase between Houses.

  • Royal Assent: Required to finalize a bill into law.

ELECTORAL SYSTEM

• First-Past-The-Post (FPTP):

  • Used in UK general elections where voters select one candidate, and the one with the most votes wins.

  • Advantages include single-party governments and direct links between voters and their MPs.

  • Disadvanteages include unfair results, many votes being wasted, encourages a two-party system.

LEGAL SYSTEM OF ENGLAND & WALES

• No Written Code: Based on Statute Law (Acts of Parliament) and Common Law (past judicial decisions).

LEGAL PROFESSION

• Solicitors: Primary public contact who handle legal advice and paperwork.

• Barristers: Represent cases in higher courts, typically not dealing directly with the public.

COURT SYSTEM

• Magistrates’ Courts: Handle $90\%$ of cases, usually without a jury.

• Crown Court: Serious criminal cases with a jury of $12$ individuals.

• The Supreme Court: Highest court established in $2005$, separating it from Parliament.

BRITISH THEATRE OVERVIEW

Repertory Theatre

•  Resident company of actors

• Several plays performed in rotation

• Government subsidised

• Focus on artistic quality, not profit

Importance

• Develops actors and directors

• Supports national culture

Major Institutions

• RSC (1961) – Shakespeare, Stratford-upon-Avon

• National Theatre (1963) – high-quality theatre for all

• Old Vic (1876) – Shakespeare, actor training

The West End

• Commercial theatre district

• Privately funded

• Musicals and long-running shows

• Expensive tickets

Musical Theatre

• Andrew Lloyd Webber – Cats, The Phantom of the Opera

• Tim Rice – lyricist (Evita, Jesus Christ Superstar)

Cultural Importance

• Theatre central to British identity

• Strong link to Shakespeare

FORMATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM

• 843 AD – Kingdom of Scotland formed (independent state)

• 1603 – Union of the Crowns

  • James VI of Scotland became James I of England

  • One monarch, two separate states

• 1707 – Act of Union

  • England and Scotland united

  • Scottish Parliament dissolved

  • Single Parliament at Westminster

  • Great Britain created

• 1801 – Act of Union with Ireland

  • United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

• 1922 – Partition of Ireland

  • 26 counties left the UK

  • 6 counties remained → Northern Ireland

  • Modern UK formed

• Wales

  • Never an independent state

  • Conquered by England (1282–83)

  • No separate Act of Union

• 1998 – Devolution

  • Scottish Parliament restored

  • Devolved powers: education, housing, transport, tourism

  • Defence and foreign policy remain with Westminster

BRITISH EDUCATION SYSTEM

• Compulsory until age $16$. Decentralized across England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, there is strong emphasis on tradition, independence, academic achievement.

• State Schools: Free education funded by taxes.

  • Primary School (ages 5-11)

  • Secondary school (ages 11-16)

• Public Schools: Elite, private, fee-paying institutions for ex. Eton, Harrow, Rugby.

• Main Qualifications:

  • GCSEs: Taken at age $16$.

  • A-levels: Taken at age $18$, required for university entrance.