Vietnam War

The Vietnam War Study Notes

The Beginning of the War

Overview of French Indochina
  • Colonial Background: Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia operated as French colonies. Following World War I and the Treaty of Versailles, these nations were not granted independence or self-determination.

Vietnam During WWII

Japan's Invasion
  • Timeline: Japan took control of Indochina in 1940 during WWII.
  • Key Figure: Ho Chi Minh emerged as a significant nationalist leader.
    • Nationalist Aspirations: He aimed to liberate Vietnam from colonial dominance.
    • Communist Ideology: Ho Chi Minh was influenced by communist ideologies during his education in Europe.
  • Journey: Ho learned about communism, moved to China, got imprisoned, and later returned to Vietnam, earning the nickname “Uncle Ho”.

Vietnam after WWII

Post-war Expectations
  • Independence Anticipation: By the end of WWII, Ho Chi Minh expected Vietnam to gain independence.
  • French Reoccupation: France returned to Vietnam after the war.
  • Guerilla Warfare: Ho’s followers initiated a guerilla war against the French forces.
    • Ho Chi Minh's Quote: “We will lose 10 men to every 1 of yours and we will still win.”
  • U.S. Support for France:
    • In 1950, the U.S. financially supported France with approximately $15 million, escalating to $2.6 billion over the next four years.

U.S. Involvement in Vietnam

Eisenhower's Domino Theory
  • Election Year: Eisenhower was elected in 1952.
  • Domino Theory Explanation: Eisenhower explained the domino theory:
    • “You have a row of dominoes set up. You knock over the first one, and what will happen to the last one is the certainty that it will go over very quickly.”
    • This was a key element of the broader containment policy against communism.
  • Battle of Diem Bien Phu: French forces were defeated at this pivotal 1954 battle.
Geneva Accords
  • Peace Agreement: Signed in 1954, it divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel.
  • Elections for Unification: Elections to unify the country were scheduled for 1956.

Political Landscape of New Vietnam

North vs. South Vietnam
  • North Vietnam:
    • Governed by Ho Chi Minh and the communists, with Hanoi as the capital.
    • Ho Chi Minh was immensely popular in the North.
  • South Vietnam:
    • Governed by anti-communist nationalists like Ngo Dinh Diem, with Saigon as the capital, backed by the U.S.
Issues in South Vietnam
  • Election Cancellations: Diem's refusal to participate in the 1956 elections led to increasing tensions.
  • Corruption: Diem established a corrupt government.
  • Emergence of the Vietcong: A communist group known as the Vietcong (National Liberation Front or NLF) surfaced by 1957, citing oppression, particularly against Buddhists, leading to protests in 1963.

U.S. Escalation in Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh Trail and Military Engagements
  • Supply Route: Weapons were supplied to the Vietcong via the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
  • U.S. Military Assistance: Under Kennedy, funding to South Vietnam increased, and military advisors were deployed to train the South Vietnamese army, totaling about 16,000 by 1963.
  • Strategic Shift: A realization that Diem had to be removed emerged.
Overthrow of Diem
  • Military Coup: On November 1, 1963, a coup supported by the U.S. led to Diem's execution, which resulted in increased chaos in Vietnam.
  • Leadership Shift: After Kennedy's assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ) assumed the presidency, inheriting the conflict.
LBJ’s Approach
  • Preventing Communism: LBJ aimed to avoid appearing soft on communism or allowing Vietnam to fall to the communists.
  • Increased US Involvement: He escalated the conflict with greater military engagement.

The Tonkin Gulf Incident

Prelude to War Expansion
  • Incidents: On August 2, 1964, North Vietnamese boats fired upon the USS Maddox, which missed. On August 4, another alleged attack prompted LBJ to seek Congressional support.
  • Tonkin Gulf Resolution:
    • Passed by Congress, granting LBJ extensive powers, leading to Operation Rolling Thunder in February 1965, a sustained bombing campaign against North Vietnam.

U.S. Military Strategies and Warfare

Overview of the Fighting
Characteristics of the Vietcong
  • Misconceptions by the U.S.: The U.S. believed the war would be swift. However, they underestimated the Vietcong’s capabilities.
  • Guerrilla Warfare Tactics:
    • The Vietcong implemented guerilla tactics, utilized booby traps and landmines, engaged in hit-and-run attacks, and capitalized on their knowledge of the terrain.
    • Challenges for U.S. Forces: American troops struggled to identify Vietcong fighters, leading to the capture of POWs.
Vietcong Tunnel Systems
  • Construction of Tunnels: The Vietcong developed elaborate underground tunnel systems, which were well-concealed and served various purposes:
    1. Shelter for combatants.
    2. Firing posts.
    3. Water and first aid stations.
    4. Airtight trapdoors for stealth.
    5. Reinforced sleeping chambers.
    6. Blast deflection walls and meeting rooms.
    7. Storage caches for weapons and food.
U.S. Response to the Challenges by the Vietcong
  • Attrition Strategy: The U.S. miscalculated the enemy's resilience, highlighted by Ho's strategy where he indicated a 10:1 ratio but still able to win.
  • McNamara's Reflection: “I didn’t think these people had the capacity to fight this way.”
  • Psychological Warfare: The goal was to win the “hearts and minds” of the South Vietnamese people.
U.S. Military Tactics
  • New Tactics Implemented:
    • Use of napalm and Agent Orange led to devastating consequences for villagers and the land.
    • Search-and-destroy missions resulted in whole villages being invaded and destroyed.
Soldier Morale
  • Initial morale among U.S. soldiers was high but significantly deteriorated over time.
  • Concerns arose regarding the lack of support from home, coupled with instability in the South Vietnamese government.
  • The Vietnam War was termed the “living room war,” as it was the first conflict showcased extensively on television.
Credibility Gap in Communication
  • Johnson vs. Reality: While LBJ portrayed a favorable image of the war, many Americans saw a starkly contrasting reality on television.
  • General Optimism: Military leaders like William Westmoreland expressed optimism that contradicted public sentiment, leading to growing public distrust.
    • “I want to get out, but I don’t want to give in.”

The Draft and Participation

Eligibility and Deferments
  • Draft Regulations: Men aged 18-26 were eligible for the draft.
  • Deferment Avenues: Many drafted individuals sought deferments through various means, including:
    • Medical excuses.
    • Joining National Guard or Coast Guard.
    • Enrolling in college, the most common method.

Key Events During the War

Tet Offensive
  • Event Timing: Occurred during the Vietnamese New Year from January 30 to February 24, 1968.
  • Surprise Attack: The Vietcong launched a massive offensive against over 100 towns and 12 U.S. airbases despite a supposed week-long truce.
  • Casualties:
    • Vietcong losses: 32,000
    • U.S. losses: 3,000
  • Conflicting Views on Success: While U.S. generals viewed this as a defeat for the Vietcong based on numbers, it catalyzed further mistrust among Americans towards the government.

Social and Political Turbulence

Growing Protests
  • Protest Escalation: Protests emerged, initiated by returning veterans and public figures.
    • Musical artists often highlighted public discontent through their crafts, leading to increased societal divisions.
  • Categories of Public Opinion:
    • Doves: Those who staunchly opposed the war.
    • Hawks: Advocates for unleashing greater military force to conclude the war.
    • Despite protests, in 1967, 66% of Americans supported the war effort.

LBJ's Perspectives and War Outcomes

Statements Reflecting Public Sentiment
  • LBJ's Acknowledgement: “There has always been confusion, frustration, and difference of opinion in this country when there is a war going on…” —LBJ, illustrating the complexities of wartime decision-making.
  • View of the War: Walter Cronkite stated: “…more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate.”
    • LBJ’s response: “If I’ve lost Walter, then it’s over. I’ve lost Mr. Average Citizen.”
Political Landscape in 1968
  • Election Shifts: Robert Kennedy announced his candidacy, while LBJ declared he would not run again.
    • Subsequent assassination of Bobby Kennedy led to Hubert Humphrey becoming the Democratic nominee.
  • Nixon's Victory: Nixon campaigned on promises to restore law and order and to end the Vietnam War, appealing to a significant portion of the American populace.
Vietnamization Strategy Under Nixon
  • Gradual Troop Withdrawal: Initiated the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops faced with challenging negotiations with North Vietnam.
    • By August 1969, 25,000 troops had returned home.
  • Deceptive Tactics: Nixon aimed to convey an intent to negotiate while deploying bombings over North Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
My Lai Massacre
  • Shocking Reports: In November 1969, report surfaced regarding the My Lai Massacre, detailing the horrors committed on March 16, 1968, when U.S. troops searching for Vietcong slaughtered approximately 500 innocent Vietnamese, primarily women and children.
  • Commanding Orders: The massacre was led by Lieutenant William Calley, who was famously recorded stating, “kill anything that breathes.”
    • Resulted in 25 officers being charged, a situation that deeply affected the American public's perception of the war.

Societal Reactions to the Vietnam War

Counterculture Movement
  • Emergence: The counterculture emerged during the Vietnam War among youth characterized by their rebellion against societal norms, often referred to as hippies.
  • Common Slogans: The mantra “Tune in, turn on, drop out” epitomized their dismissal of mainstream society.
  • Cultural Representation: Hippies embodied colorful clothing, psychedelic aesthetics, an openness to drug use, and long hair as defiance.
Notable Events and Figures
  • Woodstock Festival: Took place in August 1969, representing a free music festival that attracted around 400,000 youth over three days, featuring prominent musicians and symbolizing the height of counterculture.
Art Influences
  • Impact on Art: Counterculture influenced contemporary art, with figures like Andy Warhol becoming symbols of the movement.
Conservative Pushback
  • Critique of Counterculture: The conservative backlash targeted counterculture for perceived excesses in drug use, sexual freedom, and a rejection of conventional work ethics.
    • The term “Silent Majority” emerged, referring to those who remained passive in opposition or support of prevailing public sentiments.
Key Incidents of Unrest
  • Kent State University Protest: Demonstrated significant protests with the National Guard being called in after an ROTC building was burned. On May 4, 1970, guards fired into a crowd, wounding 9 and killing 4.
  • Jackson State Protests: Shortly after Kent State, at Jackson State, another protest resulted in 12 wounded and 2 deaths, further fueling the national debate regarding governmental actions amid campus unrest.

Invasion of Cambodia

  • Military Action: On April 30, 1970, Nixon authorized the invasion to clear out supply centers, which sparked outrage among college students leading to widespread strikes involving 1.5 million participants across campuses.
Congressional Reactions
  • Discontent with Nixon: Congress expressed dissatisfaction with Nixon's Cambodian invasion, leading to the repeal of the Tonkin Gulf Resolution by December 31, 1970, limiting presidential war powers.

Pentagon Papers

  • Leak and Implications: In June 1971, the Pentagon Papers were leaked, revealing that the government had intentions to send more troops despite assurances from LBJ denying such actions.
    • These documents illustrated a lack of a clear plan to conclude the war and provided proof of governmental deception.

Iconic War Imagery

  • Kim Phuc Incident: In June 1972, a famous photo showed 9-year-old Kim Phuc fleeing after a napalm attack near Trang Bang, symbolizing the war's devastating impacts.

Conclusion of the Vietnam War

Peace and Aftermath
  • Negotiations: Henry Kissinger led U.S. negotiations with North Vietnam, attempting to reach a settlement amid war fatigue.
    • “Christmas Bombings” consisted of an intense bombing campaign involving 100,000 bombs over 11 days against North Vietnam.
  • Formal End: The war officially ended on January 27, 1973, with an agreement signed that allowed North Vietnam to retain a presence in South Vietnam. By March 29, 1973, the last U.S. troops returned home, marking an end to American involvement.
Fall of Saigon
  • Invasion and Collapse: In March 1975, North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, resulting in an appeal for U.S. help, which Ford provided through economic aid but not military support. On April 30, 1975, North Vietnam captured Saigon, marking the complete takeover of South Vietnam.
POW/MIA Statistics
  • Prisoner of War: Some soldiers, like John McCain, endured extensive captivity (5 years). A total of 2,202 individuals were classified as Missing in Action, with debates continuing about the possibility of living POWs remaining in Vietnam.

Casualties of War

  • U.S. Casualties: Approximately 58,000 American soldiers were killed, with around 365,000 wounded.
  • Vietnamese Casualties: Combined North and South Vietnamese losses numbered around 1.5 million killed, with ongoing instability in Southeast Asia.
  • Veteran Challenges: Many veterans returned to the U.S. not receiving adequate support, facing issues such as depression, PTSD, and a significant number committing suicide due to their struggles upon reintegration into society.
Impact of the War
  • Defoliation and Civilian Deaths: A stark visual representation of the war’s impact was made by showing overlapping maps of defoliated areas in Vietnam against the U.S. map, indicating widespread devastation, civilian casualties, and displacements.
U.S. Foreign Policy Post-Vietnam
  • Policy Changes: The Vietnam War led to substantial shifts in U.S. foreign policy, marking the end of the draft and the implementation of the War Powers Act, which intended to limit presidential power during wartime.
Post-War Vietnam
  • Post-Conflict Repressions: After the war, North Vietnam administered harsh measures against the South, including restorative prison camps. Roughly 1.5 million South Vietnamese fled the country, often referred to as "boat people."
Vietnam Veterans Memorial
  • Memorial Construction: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., designed by Maya Lin and completed in 1982, features two black granite walls with the names of the victims inscribed by the date of their deaths, serving as a poignant tribute.

Final Thoughts and Reflections

Memorial Design Reflection
  • Personal Opinion on Memorial: Invite thoughts on the design of the Vietnam War Memorial and its effectiveness as a commemorative space for those affected by the war.