Crisis of Kingship in Scotland (1286-96)

Chapter 8: The Crisis of Kingship (1286-96)

The End of the Line

On 20 March 1286, the funeral of Alexander III took place at Dunfermline Abbey. Unlike prior royal funerals in 1214 and 1249, this occasion did not herald the inauguration of a new king. Alexander's unexpected death marked the termination of the male line of a royal dynasty that had dominated Scotland for two centuries. The funeral set the stage for multiple councils convened in the spring of 1286, where the Scottish political elite assembled to address the power vacuum resulting from Alexander's demise. The search for a widely accepted royal figure to fill this void evolved from a temporary crisis into an enduring military and political struggle, with implications that would affect three generations of Scots. Central to this power struggle was the quest for a royal authority reminiscent of that wielded by Alexander III and his predecessors, but the nature of the struggle would fundamentally alter the structure and character of Scotland and eventually jeopardize its existence.

The primary threat to Scotland's survival emanated from the kings of England. In 1286, involvement from the English crown appeared both natural and expected, given Edward I's position as a powerful neighbor, a relative within the Scottish royal lineage, and the lord of Alexander III and many of his nobles regarding their lands in England. Following the funeral, Scottish leaders dispatched friars to Edward, soliciting a sign of goodwill. As summer approached, more prominent envoys sought Edward's assistance; in May, Bishop William Fraser of St Andrews journeyed south but likely did not encounter Edward before he departed for France. A subsequent embassy finally reached the king at Saintes in his duchy of Aquitaine, where the Scots sought Edward's 'counsel and protection,' perhaps hoping he would assume an informal protective role similar to that played by his father in the 1250s. However, Edward proved to be less pliable than his father, implying any such protection would come with the expectation of recognized authority over Scotland. Despite this ominous approach, neither side pressed the issue as Edward's immediate concerns throughout 1286 were focused on Aquitaine, leading to the Scots departing without the assurance of his support.

Political Instability in Scotland

The Scottish political class's request for assistance indicated the challenges confronting them in 1286. Assemblies convened at Scone on 2 April and again on 29 April made no progress towards identifying an heir. Although in 1284 the magnates had pledged to accept Alexander's granddaughter, Margaret of Norway, as heir in the absence of a male successor, uncertainty prevailed following Alexander's death due to speculation that his widow, Yolanda of Dreux, was pregnant. Consequently, discussions concerning succession were postponed. Recognizing the absence of any nominal royal authority, it became crucial for the magnates to establish a framework for governance and coordinated action.

In late April 1286, under the leadership of bishops Fraser and Robert Wishart, it was resolved to take an oath of fealty to the yet-to-be-identified heir, 'who ought to inherit,' and authorize official business through a seal designated for the government of the kingdom, clearly depicting royal arms alongside an image of St. Andrew. Throughout the following years, the term 'commune' or 'community' emerged in official documents, denoting the engagement of a broad segment of the landed and political elite in governance during this kingless period. In this context, six guardians of peace were elected to lead the royal government, with representation from various sectors: Fraser and Wishart of the church, the earls represented by Alexander Comyn of Buchan and Duncan of Fife, and the barons represented by John Comyn of Badenoch and James Steward.

However, the chief concerns of the Scottish elite during this time were predominantly political, not social. Though an oath of fealty was instituted and guardians appointed, the focus remained on the lineages descending from King David I, specifically the rival claims of Robert Bruce, a seasoned lord of Annandale, and Lady Dervorgilla Balliol. Their familial ties as grandchildren of Earl David of Huntingdon were widely known, and rivalry between the Bruce and Balliol factions merely exacerbated tensions around succession. For instance, the prior year, Alexander III had compelled Walter Balloch to yield a portion of his earldom, favoring William Comyn. Conversely, the appointment of Earl Duncan, who had only secured his title post a lengthy minority, threatened dissension among neighboring lords.

Government by an aristocratic council proved susceptible to self-interest and the guardians failed to garner the legitimacy needed in the absence of an adult king, as exemplified by events in late 1286 and early 1287. In September 1286, James Stewart, guardian, met Robert Bruce and his son at Turnberry, where they formed a confederation to support Richard de Burgh, Earl of Ulster, in light of shared concerns in the Isles and Ireland. This gathering reflected significant familial alliances, with many participants ultimately aligning with the Bruce claim to the throne.

Though such alliances were natural in uncertain times, Bruce may have been emboldened by emerging support, seeking to bolster his political capital. Following reports that Queen Yolanda would not bear a child and that Margaret of Norway was now the sole heir apparent, Bruce took assertive actions, capturing royal castles in the south-west. The Bruces set their sights on the Balliols and key royal officials, inflicting considerable damage as they sought regional dominance, indicating a shifting power dynamic within Scotland's political landscape. However, rather than expanding their support base, Bruce's actions alienated potential allies, including James Stewart, who prioritized his duties as guardian over personal relationships.

This initial foray by the Bruces into violent competition embodied the aristocratic rivalries bubbling beneath the surface of Scottish politics. An eventual truce required them to surrender captured castles and reaffirm their loyalty to Margaret of Norway. Acceptance of her as queen was complicated by the geopolitical dynamics in play, particularly that Margaret's legitimacy hinged on her father, King Eric II of Norway, whose reluctance to send her to Scotland was influenced by outstanding dowry payments from the guardians.

Governance Under the Guardians

Between 1287 and 1290, while Margaret remained in Norway, the guardians managed day-to-day governmental functions but struggled with maintaining authority amidst rising tensions and factionalism. Events such as the abduction of Eleanor de Ferrers by William the Bold underscored the limitations of the guardians, linked to their inability to act decisively due to relations with influential nobles. Duncan, earl of Fife's murder in September 1289 served as a brutal reminder of their waning control, with subsequent rivalries among prominent families exacerbating instability.

As Scottish society fragmented, internal disputes surfaced, resonating far beyond the immediate issues of succession. Nepotism and political machinations played a significant role in the division of power, as seen when disputes emerged in Moray between factions led by John of Strathbogie, earl of Atholl, and the Comyns.

In a bid to transition out of crisis, a consensus remained over Margaret's potential role as the future queen. The viability of her reign was entangled in strategies that included securing Edward I's involvement through negotiations on her behalf, culminating in treaties and agreements that sought to bring reassurance amid chaos. The marriage contract between Margaret and Edward I's son aimed to solidify ties between Scotland and England, rather than ushering Scotland into complete subjugation. The terms of the treaty offered insights into the Scottish elites' concerns for maintaining autonomy alongside their desire for stability amid turmoil.

In July 1290, an agreement reached at Birgham asserted that 'the realm of Scotland shall remain separated and divided and free in itself, without subjection to the realm of England.' This marked a profound statement of Scottish identity and resistance, emphasizing the rights and freedoms that the leaders aimed to protect, even as Edward I's influence loomed over their kingdom.