Bradley Chang - CED Walkthrough - 14169852
Unit 0 - Research
Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Research
Experimental: Involves manipulating one or more variables to determine cause and effect.
Non-experimental: Descriptive or correlational, without direct manipulation.
Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
Confounding Variables: Extraneous variables that can affect the results of the experiment, making it difficult to determine the true effect of the IV.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between groups.
Population: The entire group of individuals that the researchers are interested in studying.
Sample: A subset of the population that is selected to participate in the research.
Random Sampling: A method of selecting a sample from a population where every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Representative Samples: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.
Convenience Samples: A sample that is selected based on the availability and willingness of participants.
Sampling Bias: Occurs when the sample is not representative of the population.
Generalizability: The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other populations, settings, or conditions.
Experimental Group: The group that receives the treatment or manipulation.
Control Group: The group that does not receive the treatment or manipulation; used as a baseline for comparison.
Placebo Group: A control group that receives a fake treatment, such as a sugar pill.
Placebo Effect: A change in behavior or symptoms that is due to the participant's belief that they are receiving a treatment.
Single-Blind Procedure: Participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.
Double-Blind Procedure: Both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group.
Experimenter Bias: Occurs when the researcher's expectations influence the results of the study.
Case Study: An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.
Correlation: A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Correlation Does Not Equal Causation: Just because two variables are related does not mean that one causes the other.
Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable also increases.
Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable decreases.
Directionality Problem: It is not possible to tell which variable is the cause and which is the effect.
Third-Variable Problem: A third, unmeasured variable might be responsible for the correlation between the two variables of interest.
Scatterplots: Graphs that show the relationship between two variables.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables (ranges from -1 to +1).
Quantitative Measures: Numerical data (e.g., Likert scales).
Qualitative Measures: Non-numerical data (e.g., structured interviews).
Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in its natural setting without intervening.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Falsifiability: The ability to prove a hypothesis wrong.
Operational Definitions: Precise descriptions of how the variables will be measured or manipulated in a study.
Replication: Repeating a study to see if the results can be reproduced.
Peer Review: The process of having other experts in the field evaluate a research study before it is published to ensure quality and validity.
Ethical Guidelines: Principles that are designed to ensure ethical conduct in research.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that they are ethical and that the rights of participants are protected.
Informed Consent: Participants must be told about the nature of the research, the risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any time.
Informed Assent: Agreement to participate in research by individuals who are not able to give informed consent (e.g., children).
Protection From Harm: Researchers must take steps to minimize the risk of physical and psychological harm to participants.
Confidentiality of Participants: Protecting the privacy of participants by keeping their data confidential.
Minimal Deception: If deception is necessary, it must be justified and participants must be debriefed afterward.
Confederates: Individuals who are part of the research team but pretend to be participants.
Debriefing: Explaining the purpose of the study to participants after they have completed it.
Central Tendency: Measures that describe the typical or average score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of a set of scores.
Mean = \frac{\sum x_i}{n}Median: The middle score in a distribution.
Mode: The most frequent score in a distribution.
Measures of Variation: Measures that describe the spread or variability of scores in a distribution.
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A measure of the average distance of scores from the mean.
Normal Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution in which most scores fall near the mean.
Percentages and Percentiles: The normal curve can be divided into percentages and percentiles to understand the distribution of scores Ex: 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean
Positive and Negative Skews: Skews refer to asymmetry in the distribution.
Positive Skew: A distribution with a long tail extending to the right (higher scores).
Negative Skew: A distribution with a long tail extending to the left (lower scores).
Bimodal Distributions: A distribution with two distinct peaks.
Regression Toward the Mean: The tendency for extreme scores to move closer to the mean upon retesting.
Statistical Significance: The probability of obtaining the observed results by chance alone is very low (typically, p < 0.05).
Effect Sizes: A measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.
Cognitive Biases: Systematic errors in thinking that can affect judgment and decision making.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out information that confirms one's existing beliefs.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Overconfidence: Overestimating one's ability or knowledge.
Surveys
Framing: The way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Social Desirability Bias: The tendency for people to answer questions in a way that they think will make them look good.
Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracies or distortions in self-report data.
Meta-Analysis
A statistical procedure for combining the results of many studies on a particular topic to provide a more precise estimate of the effect.
1.1 - Interaction of Heredity and Environment (Nature/Nurture)
Nature and Nurture: The relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to development and behavior.
Genetic Predisposition: An increased likelihood of developing a particular trait or condition due to genetic factors.
Evolutionary Perspective: The role of evolution in shaping behavior, adaptation.
Eugenics: The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population.
Twin Studies: Research that compares identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative contributions of genes and environment.
1.2 Nervous System Overview
Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
Somatic Nervous System: The division of the PNS that controls voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System: The division of the PNS that controls involuntary functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
Sympathetic Nervous System: The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations (fight or flight).
Parasympathetic Nervous System: The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy (rest and digest).
Glial Cell: Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the body.
Reflex Arc: A neural pathway that controls a reflex action.
Sensory Neurons: Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor Neurons: Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons: Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Neural Transmission: The process of communication between neurons.
All-Or-Nothing Principle: A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all: the strength of the stimulus does not affect the intensity of the action potential.
Action Potential: A brief electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron caused by the movement of ions across the membrane.
Depolarization: The reduction in the difference in voltage between the inside and outside of the neuron.
Refractory Period: A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.
Hormones: Chemical messengers that are produced by glands and travel through the bloodstream.
Adrenaline: A hormone that prepares the body for fight or flight.
Leptin: A hormone that signals satiety (fullness).
Ghrelin: A hormone that stimulates hunger.
Melatonin: A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Oxytocin: A hormone associated with social bonding and trust.
Cortisol: A stress hormone.
Agonist: A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist: A chemical that blocks the action of a neurotransmitter.
Reuptake Inhibitors: Medications that block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters in the synapse, increasing their availability.
Psychoactive Drugs: A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
1.3 The Neuron and Neural Firing
Resting Potential: The electrical potential of a neuron when it is not active (typically around -70mV).
Reuptake: A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
Firing Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Multiple Sclerosis: An autoimmune disease that affects the myelin sheath of neurons.
Myasthenia Gravis: An autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, leading to muscle weakness.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
Excitatory: Increase the likelihood of the neuron firing
Inhibitory: Decrease the likelihood of the neuron firing
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation, and motor control.
Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal.
Glutamate: A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory and learning.
GABA: A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Endorphins: Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.
Substance P: A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception.
Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in muscle action and memory.
Stimulants: Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).
Depressants: Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (e.g., alcohol).
Hallucinogens: Drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input (e.g., marijuana).
Opioids: Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety (e.g., heroin).
Tolerance: The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.
Addiction/Dependence: Compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
Withdrawal Symptoms: The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
Brain
Brainstem: The oldest part and central core of the brain, responsible for automatic survival functions.
Medulla: The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular Activating System: A set of connected nuclei in the brain responsible for regulating wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions.
Reward Center: A brain area that produces pleasurable sensations when stimulated.
Cerebellum: The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Cerebral Cortex: The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
Hemispheres: The two halves of the brain (left and right).
Limbic System: A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex.
Thalamus: The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Hypothalamus: A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Pituitary Gland: The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Amygdala: Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, especially fear and aggression.
Hippocampus: A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
Corpus Callosum: The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Lobes of the Cortex: The different regions of the cerebral cortex, each with specialized functions.
Occipital Lobes: An area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that processes visual information.
Frontal Lobes: Part of the cerebral cortex at the front of the brain, responsible for planning, decision-making, and motor control; includes the prefrontal cortex and motor cortex.
Prefrontal Cortex: Part of the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.
Motor Cortex: An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Temporal Lobes: An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information.
Parietal Lobes: An area at the top of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex that processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure; includes the somatosensory cortex and association areas.
Somatosensory Cortex: An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Association Areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Split Brain Research: Studies of patients whose corpus callosum has been severed.
Specialization of Right/Left Hemispheres: Each hemisphere has different functions.
Broca’s Area: An area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's Area: An area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression.
Aphasia: Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Contralateral Organization: The arrangement whereby the motor cortex of each cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the opposite side of the body.
Plasticity: The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
EEG (Electroencephalogram): An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
Case Studies: An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.
Lesioning Procedure: The removal or destruction of part of the brain.
1.5 Sleep
Varying Levels of Consciousness: Different states of awareness, including sleep and wakefulness.
Circadian Rhythm: The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
Stages of Sleep: Distinct patterns of brain activity and physiological changes that occur during sleep.
EEG Patterns for Each Stage: Distinct brain wave patterns during each stage of sleep.
NREM 1, 2, 3: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, split into three stages that become progressively deeper.
Hypnagogic Sensations: Sensory experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep.
REM (Paradoxical Sleep): Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Dreaming and REM: Most vivid dreams occur during REM sleep.
REM Increases Throughout the Night: REM periods become longer and more frequent as the night progresses.
REM Rebound: The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).
Activation-Synthesis Theory (Dreams): A theory that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.
Consolidation Theory (Dreams): A theory that dreams help consolidate memories.
Why We Sleep: Functions of sleep, including memory consolidation and restoration.
Memory Consolidation: The process by which memories become stable in the brain.
Sleep Disorders: Disturbances in the normal pattern of sleep.
Insomnia: Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: A sleep disorder in which the person physically acts out vivid dreams during REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea: A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
Somnambulism: Sleepwalking.
1.6 Sensation
Defining Sensation: The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Transduction: The conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
Just-Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimal change in a stimulus that can be reliably detected.
Weber’s Law: The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Sensory Interaction: The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
Synesthesia: A condition in which one sense (for example, hearing music) involuntarily produces a sensation in another sense (for example, seeing color).
Retina: The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
Blind Spot: The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.
Closure as it Relates to the Blindspot: We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Accommodation: The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Nearsightedness and Farsightedness: Problems with focusing light on the retina.
Place Theory: In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
Frequency Theory (with the Volley Principle): In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. The volley principle states that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses to overcome the firing rate limitation of individual neurons.
Sound Localization: The process of determining the location of a sound source.
Conduction Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.
Chemical Senses (Olfaction + Gustation): Senses that rely on chemical stimuli.
Olfaction (Smell): The sense of smell.
Gustation (Taste): The sense of taste.
Thalamus - Smell is Not Processed Here: The thalamus relays all sensory information except for smell.
Pheromones: Chemical signals that are released by one individual and affect the behavior of other individuals.
Gustatory Cells: Taste receptor cells.
(Sweet, Sour, Bitter, Salty, Umami, Oleogustus): These are the basic taste sensations.
Taste Receptors (Linked to Sensitivity of Taste): Receptors on the taste buds that detect different tastes.
Rods: Visual receptor cells located in the retina that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
Cones: Visual receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
Blue - Short Wavelengths of Light
Green - Medium Wavelengths of Light
Red - Long Wavelengths of Light
Trichromatic Theory: The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
Opponent-Process Theory: The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
Fovea: The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
Afterimages: Visual sensations that persist after the removal of a stimulus.
(Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, Black/White)
Ganglion Cells: Neurons that connect to the bipolar cells in the eyes.
Color Vision Deficiencies: Impairments in the ability to distinguish certain colors.
Dichromatism: A condition in which an individual has only two types of cones.
Monochromatism: A condition in which an individual has only one type of cone.
Occipital Lobes (for Visual Processing): The area of the brain responsible for processing visual information.
Prosopagnosia (Face Blindness): An inability to recognize faces.
Blindsight: A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.
Wavelength of Sound = Pitch: The frequency of a sound wave determines its pitch.
Amplitude of Wave = Loudness: The strength or intensity of a sound wave determines its loudness.
Supertasters, Nontasters, Medium Tasters: People vary in their sensitivity to taste.
Touch: The sense of physical contact.
Hot = Warm and Cold Receptor Activation: The sensation of hotness is caused by the simultaneous activation of warm and cold receptors.
Pain (Gate Control Theory): The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Phantom Limb Syndrome: The sensation that an amputated limb is still present.
Gustation/Olfaction = Strong Sensory Interaction: Taste and smell strongly influence each other.
Vestibular Sense: The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance (semicircular canals).
Kinesthesis: The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.
2.1 Perception
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: The brain's usage of sensory data to create perceptions (bottom-up) as well as the influence of prior expectations and experiences to create perceptions (top-down).
Schemas: A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Perceptual Set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Context: The setting or environment in which a stimulus occurs.
Gestalt Principles: Principles that describe how we organize sensory information into meaningful wholes.
(Closure, Figure-Ground, Proximity, Similarity)
Attention: Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.
Selective Attention: The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Habituation: Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Visual Cliff: A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
Binocular Depth Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes.
Retinal Disparity: A binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
Convergence: A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.
Monocular Cues: Depth cues available to either eye alone.
(Relative Clarity, Relative Size, Texture Gradient, Linear Perspective, Interposition)
Cocktail Party Effect: Your ability to attend to only one voice among many.
Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in the environment.
Perceptual Constancy: Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.
2.2 Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgment, Decision Making
Concepts: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototypes: A mental image or best example of a category.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
Schemas (Assimilation and Accommodation): Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. Assimilation involves incorporating new experiences into existing schemas, while accommodation involves changing existing schemas to fit new experiences.
Algorithms: A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristics: A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
Mental Set: A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
Framing: The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Gambler’s Fallacy: The belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.
Executive Functions: Higher-order cognitive processes that control and regulate other cognitive functions.
Creativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Convergent Thinking: Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
Divergent Thinking: Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.
2.3 Intro to Memory
Information Processing Model: A cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind transforms sensory information.
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing: Automatic processing is unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. Effortful processing requires attention and conscious effort.
Explicit Memory vs. Implicit Memory: Explicit (declarative) memory is memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit (nondeclarative) memory is retention independent of conscious recollection.
Episodic Memory: Memory of autobiographical events.
Semantic Memory: Memory of facts and general knowledge.
Levels of Processing (Shallow, Intermediate, Deep): Shallow processing encodes on a very basic level, such as a word's letters or a word's sound. Deep processing encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words.
Structural Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus.
Phonemic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the way the word sounds.
Semantic Encoding: Encoding that emphasizes the meaning of the word.
Multi-Store Model: A model of memory that assumes that information is stored in three different memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory (Iconic and Echoic): The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. Iconic memory is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. Echoic memory is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Short Term Memory (STM): Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long Term Memory (LTM): The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Working Memory: A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
(Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad)
Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform actions in the future.
2.4 and 2.5 Encoding and Storing Memory Mnemonic Devices 4 Types of Storage
Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Method of Loci: A mnemonic device that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar locations.
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Spacing Effect (Distributed Practice vs. Massed Practice): The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Serial Position Effect (Primacy Effect and Recency Effect): The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to keep it active in short-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Encoding that associates new information with existing memories and knowledge.
Autobiographical Memory: Memory of one's own life experiences.
2.6 and 2.7 Retrieval and Forgetting
Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help gain access to memories.
Context-Dependent Memory: Memory is improved when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.
State-Dependent Memory: Memory is improved when the physiological or emotional state at retrieval matches the state at encoding.
Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.
Retrieval Practice: Practicing retrieving information from memory.
Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
Recall and Recognition: Recall is retrieving information without cues. Recognition involves identifying previously learned information from a set of options.
Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus): The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then slows down with time.
Encoding Failure: Failure to encode information into memory in the first place.
Proactive Interference: The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference: The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: The experience of knowing that you know something but being unable to access it.
Repression: In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Source Amnesia: Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
Constructive Memory (Via Memory Consolidation or Imagination Inflation): Memory is a constructive process, and memories can be influenced by new information and experiences.
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