American and the Great War

American Isolationism and the European Origins of War

In 1914, the U.S. government, under President Woodrow Wilson, opposed involvement in international military conflicts.
However, the war in Europe and total war strategies targeting transatlantic commerce and travel made neutrality difficult.
The American public was divided on intervention.
Artist George Bellows created paintings depicting German war atrocities to boost support for the war effort, but these were seen as anti-German propaganda.
The U.S. government sponsored propaganda due to concerns about American immigrants sympathizing with the Central powers.

Woodrow Wilson’s Early Efforts at Foreign Policy

Wilson aimed for a less expansionist foreign policy than Roosevelt and Taft.
He believed in American values, democracy, and economic markets but favored morality over self-interest.
William Jennings Bryan, as Secretary of State, promoted "cooling off treaties" for resolving disputes through talks.
Bryan negotiated friendly relations with Colombia and worked towards self-government in the Philippines.
Wilson found it challenging to keep the U.S. out of world affairs, intervening where American interests were threatened.
Wilson abandoned Taft’s "dollar diplomacy" in Asia and revived diplomatic efforts to minimize Japanese interference.
Robert Lansing signed the Lansing-Ishii Agreement in 1917, recognizing Japanese control over Manchuria in exchange for Japan not exploiting the war for further gains in China.
Wilson intervened more in Western Hemisphere affairs than Taft or Roosevelt.
In 1915, he sent Marines to Haiti after a revolution threatened New York banking interests and assumed control over the island's foreign policy and financial administration.
In 1916, Wilson sent Marines to the Dominican Republic to ensure debt payment.
In 1917, troops were sent to Cuba to protect American-owned sugar plantations, remaining for four years.
Wilson refused to recognize Victoriano Huerta's government in Mexico and supported Venustiano Carranza.
In April 1914, a fight erupted between the U.S. Navy and Mexican troops in Veracruz, resulting in nearly 150 deaths.
Wilson then supported Pancho Villa, but later recognized Carranza’s government in 1915.
In 1916, Pancho Villa attacked Columbus, New Mexico, leading Wilson to send General John Pershing into Mexico; U.S. troops withdrew in 1917.

War Erupts in Europe

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, triggered World War I.
Europe was entangled in mutual defense alliance treaties.
The Triple Entente included France, Great Britain, and Russia, while the Central Powers (Triple Alliance) included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and initially Italy.
Nationalism and competition over empires fueled tensions.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, leading to declarations of war by Germany on Russia and, eventually, involving Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire.
World War I introduced trench warfare and new military technologies like artillery, tanks, airplanes, machine guns, barbed wire, and poison gas.
The war resulted in ten million military deaths and millions of civilian deaths.
German U-boats attacked without warning, violating international law, and sank nearly five thousand vessels by 1918.
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania in May 1915, which killed almost 1,200 civilians, including 128 Americans, galvanized support for the war.

The Challenge of Neutrality

Wilson maintained neutrality due to moral principles, practical necessity, and political reasons, aiming for open markets and commercial ties with all belligerents.
He stated that those who loved America will act with impartiality, fairness, and friendliness to all.
Wilson faced a difficult reelection bid and pressure from various political constituents.
The National Defense Act of 1916 more than doubled the size of the army, and the Naval Appropriations Act of 1916 expanded the U.S. fleet.
Republicans nominated Charles Evans Hughes in 1916, who criticized Wilson’s foreign policy.
Wilson campaigned under the slogan "Wilson—he kept us out of war" and won reelection with less than 50 percent of the popular vote.
Economic factors, such as trade with Great Britain and loans to the Allies, complicated neutrality.
Exports to the Allies quadrupled, while exports to Germany decreased due to the British naval blockade.
Ethnic divisions among Americans, with varying sympathies towards different European nations, further complicated the decision to go to war.
Germany intensified submarine warfare in 1917 to break the British naval blockade.
The sinking of American merchant ships increased pressure on Wilson to declare war.
The Zimmermann telegram, intercepted by British intelligence, revealed Germany's offer to Mexico to join the war effort against the U.S. in exchange for regaining lost territories.
Combined with unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmermann telegram led Wilson to ask Congress to declare war on Germany on April 2, 1917.
Congress debated for four days, with concerns about U.S. economic interests. On April 6, Congress voted in favor of war.

Wilson’s Peace Without Victory Speech

Wilson advocated for "peace without victory" in a speech before the Senate in January 1917, emphasizing equality and common benefit.
The speech was not well-received by England and France, who desired spoils of war, but showed his attempt to create a benign foreign policy role for the U.S.

The United States Prepares for War

The U.S. aimed to secure enough men, money, food, and supplies for the war effort.

The Ingredients of War

The Selective Service Act of 1917 required men aged 21-30 to register for the draft, later expanded to 18-45.
Over ten million men registered on the first day; by the war's end, twenty-two million registered, with five million drafted, 1.5 million volunteering, and 500,000 joining the navy or marines.
Twenty thousand women volunteered, serving as nurses or in clerical positions.
Almost 350,000 eligible Americans refused to register, with 65,000 as conscientious objectors.
The Lever Food and Fuel Control Act empowered the president to control food production, distribution, and prices.
The Fuel Administration, led by Harry Garfield, introduced "fuel holidays" and "daylight saving time."
Herbert Hoover coordinated the Food Administration, encouraging voluntary rationing with slogans like "food will win the war."
The War Industries Board, led by Bernard Baruch, ensured adequate military supplies, directing shipments of raw materials and controlling government contracts.
The U.S. Railroad Administration, led by William McAdoo, controlled the railroad industry to efficiently move personnel and supplies.
The Liberty Loan Act allowed the government to sell liberty bonds, raising $23 billion.
Additional funds came from federal income tax revenue, enabled by the Sixteenth Amendment.

Controlling Dissent

The Wilson administration aimed to unite a diverse nation, initiating a propaganda campaign pushing the "America First" message.
The Committee of Public Information, under George Creel, employed artists, speakers, writers, and filmmakers to encourage sacrifices and foster anti-German sentiment.
Anti-German xenophobia led to persecution of German Americans, including renaming streets and buildings, banning German-language books, and avoiding speaking German.
The Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 prohibited individual trade with enemy nations.
The Espionage Act prohibited aiding the enemy and public opposition to the war effort, with penalties of fines and imprisonment.
The Sedition Act of 1918 prohibited criticism of the government, Constitution, military uniform, or American flag.
Over two thousand persons were charged with violating these laws, and immigrants faced deportation.
Local “councils of defense” and the American Protective League spied on dissenters.
Roger Baldwin formed the National Civil Liberties Bureau (a forerunner to the ACLU) to challenge government policies against wartime dissent.
In Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme Court upheld the Espionage and Sedition Acts, arguing that dissent presented a "clear and present danger."

Americana: American First, American Above All

Government propaganda emphasized that immigrants must remember that their loyalties should be with America.
Anti-German sentiment was pervasive.
Libraries withdrew German-language books and some restaurants refused to serve German foods.

A New Home Front

The war dramatically changed the lives of Americans on the home front.

New Opportunities Born From War

The government invited organized labor to the negotiating table, leading to the creation of the National Labor War Board in April 1918.
Samuel Gompers and the AFL pledged "no-strike" for the war's duration in exchange for the protection of workers' rights.
An eight-hour workday, a living wage, and union membership were promoted, leading to union membership skyrocketing from 2.6 million in 1916 to 4.1 million in 1919.
The economic gains were limited, with business owners and corporations benefiting more than workers due to inflation.

Women in Wartime

The war presented new opportunities for women, with over one million entering the workforce for the first time and eight million finding higher-paying jobs.
Women found employment in male occupations, such as on railroads and assembly lines.
After the war, women were often fired to make way for returning men.
Women were typically paid lower wages than men.
Wartime employment familiarized women with an alternative to domesticity.
The Women’s Land Army of America saw women running farms as men left for the armed forces.
Additionally, 30 thousand women served in the military.
American women also served as telephone operators in France, such as 230 bilingual "Hello Girls" stationed in combat areas, and as Red Cross nurses, providing medical support to American troops.

African Americans in the Crusade for Democracy

Black people composed 13 percent of the enlisted military, with 350,000 men serving, though in segregated units.
Colonel Charles Young of the Tenth Cavalry served as the highest-ranking African American officer.
The 369th Infantry, known as the Harlem Hellfighters, served on the frontline of France for six months and was commended for bravery.
On the home front, African Americans saw economic opportunities increase during the Great Migration, finding work in steel, mining, shipbuilding, and automotive industries.
Despite these opportunities, racism persisted, with fears among White people that Black veterans would feel empowered.
Race riots increased, including the East Saint Louis riot in 1917, and lynchings escalated.

The Last Vestiges of Progressivism

The war influenced the passage of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments.
Prohibition, the anti-alcohol movement, gained momentum due to anti-German sentiment and the need to ration grain, leading to the ratification of the Eighteenth Amendment in January 1919.
Congress passed the Volstead Act, translating the Eighteenth Amendment into an enforceable ban, excluding alcohol use for religious rituals.
The ban on alcohol was difficult to enforce, leading to organized crime and eventual repeal in 1933.
Supporters of equal rights for women argued that it was hypocritical to fight for democracy abroad while denying women the right to vote.
Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the National American Women Suffrage Movement, argued that women with the right to vote would demonstrate loyalty to the nation.
Alice Paul organized protests outside the White House.
African American suffragists faced discrimination from their White counterparts.
In response, Black suffragists formed what would become the National Association of Colored Women Clubs.
Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin and Mary Church Terrell led the organization in its efforts for women's rights, ending lynchings, and raising money for social services.
By the end of the war, the abusive treatment of suffragist hunger-strikers in prison and women’s important contribution to the war effort caused Woodrow Wilson to encourage Congressmen and Senators to adopt the legislation.
The Nineteenth Amendment passed in June 1919, prohibiting the denial of the right to vote based on sex, and was ratified by August 1920.

From War to Peace

The American role in World War I was brief but decisive.

Winning the War

When the U.S. declared war on Germany in April 1917, Allied forces were close to exhaustion.
Wilson sent 200,000 American troops in June 1917.
By March 1918, Germany won the war on the eastern front due to the Russian Revolution.
Germany moved upon the Allied lines, causing France and Britain to ask Wilson to commit U.S. troops to the front immediately.
From May 28 through August 6, 1918, American forces repelled the German offensive in a series of battles; Cantigny, Chateau Thierry, Belleau Wood, and the Second Battle of the Marne.
At the end of September 1918, over one million U.S. soldiers staged a full offensive into the Argonne Forest.
On November 11, 1918, Germany and the Allies declared an armistice.
117,000 American soldiers had been killed and 206,000 wounded.
The Allies suffered over 5.7 million military deaths, and the Central powers suffered four million.
The total cost of the war to the U.S. was in excess of $32$ billion.

The Battle for Peace

Wilson aimed to create a moral foreign policy and a "new world order."
In January 1918, Wilson announced his postwar peace plan, the Fourteen Points, calling for openness in diplomacy, free trade, freedom of the seas, an end to secret treaties, self-determination of all nations, and a League of Nations.
Wilson went to the Paris Peace Conference himself, the largest meeting of world leaders in history.
Great Britain, France, and Italy sought revenge against Germany, security against future aggressions, and maintenance of colonial possessions.
In the end, the Treaty of Versailles scarcely resembled the Fourteen Points.
Japan, France, and Britain divided Germany’s colonial holdings. The Ottoman Empire’s dissolution created new nations under French and British colonial rule.
France gained territory and insisted on a “war guilt clause” that demanded Germany take public responsibility for starting and prosecuting the war that led to so much death and destruction. Great Britain led the charge that resulted in Germany agreeing to pay reparations in excess of $33$ billion to the Allies.
The sole piece of the Fourteen Points that Wilson successfully fought to keep intact was the creation of a League of Nations.
Article X of the League's covenant required member nations to defend each other against military threats.

Ratification of the Treaty of Versailles

The ratification required two-thirds approval by the U.S. Senate.
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge issued fourteen reservations regarding the treaty, focusing on the League of Nations.
Isolationists feared Article X would require American intervention.
Wilson embarked on a cross-country speaking tour but suffered a stroke.
Wilson urged Democrats to reject any compromise on the treaty.
Congress defeated the original treaty. When re-introduced with reservations, it again fell short of ratification.
The U.S. never became an official signatory of the Treaty of Versailles or joined the League of Nations because there wasn't the proper margin for ratification.
The U.S. remained technically at war with Germany until July 21, 1921, when it formally came to a close with Congress’s quiet passage of the Knox-Porter Resolution.

Demobilization and Its Difficult Aftermath

The American public faced challenges, including racial tensions, a flu epidemic, anticommunist hysteria, and economic uncertainty.
President Wilson remained in Paris, and the country was leaderless.

Disorder and Fear in America

U.S. troops were rapidly demobilized and sent home.
A new strain of influenza emerged, killing over 675,000 Americans by 1919 and fifty million people worldwide.
Wartime production led to inflation; public demand outpaced production, leading to shortages and skyrocketing inflation in 1919.
Over four million workers participated in nearly three thousand strikes in 1919, demanding better hours and wages.
Race riots grew in postwar America; White soldiers returned to find Black workers in their former jobs, resulting in the bloody "Red Summer" of 1919.
In the Chicago Race Riot of 1919, a White mob stoned a young Black boy to death, triggering a week-long riot that killed 38 people and caused millions of dollars in damage.
There was also a massacre in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1921, with estimates of Black fatalities ranging from fifty to three hundred after dubious allegations lead to violence.
Revolutionary rhetoric emanating from Bolshevik Russia intensified, leading to a Red Scare in the United States.
Investigators uncovered letter bombs, and eight bombs exploded on June 2, 1919.
Attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer and J. Edgar Hoover organized nationwide raids on radical headquarters.
The Palmer raids resulted in the arrests of four thousand alleged radicals, with 250 deported on "the Soviet Ark."

A Return to Normalcy

By 1920, Americans had failed their expectations to create a better world.
The flu epidemic, economic troubles, and racial tensions made the immediate postwar experience one of anxiety.
In the 1920 presidential election, Americans sought a break from Progressive mandates and war.
Republicans found their man in Senator Warren G. Harding from Ohio, who promised a return to normalcy.
Harding won an overwhelming landslide, with 404 votes to 127 in the Electoral College, and 60 percent of the popular vote.