A.J.P. Taylor's The First World War: Comprehensive Study Notes

Author Biography and Historical Context

A.J.P. Taylor († 1990): Recognized as one of Britain’s most popular and authoritative historians. He was a lecturer at Manchester University ( $1930–1938$ ) and a Fellow at Magdalen College, Oxford ( $1938–1976$ ).
Key Publications: The Course of German History, Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman, The Origins of the Second World War, The Habsburg Monarchy 1809–1918, and The First World War: An Illustrated History.
Historical Perspective: The war is framed by the paradox that men were passionately engaged while simultaneously hating the conflict. Statesmen and generals were overwhelmed by the magnitude of events; they believed in the "secret of mass," but the mass they evoked went beyond their control.
The Visual Record: Historical photography, raised from infancy in the Crimean War, allows people to relive WWI through the lens of "Everyman," showing trenches, munition factories, and the human beings behind political rhetoric.

1914: The Outbreak of War and the End of Movement

The Catalyst for Conflict: - Date: June 28, 1914 (the anniversary of the wedding of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Countess Sophie Chotek). - The Sarajevo Assassination: Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Habsburg Monarchy, was an obstinate man who loved his wife; she could only share his recognition when he acted in a military capacity as Inspector General. He went to Sarajevo to inspect the army in Bosnia. - The Conspirators: Half a dozen grammar-school boys, encouraged by the Serb secret society "Apis." The head of Apis was more interested in embarrassing his own government than killing the Archduke. - The Event: A bomb missed; the Archduke went to the town hall; the chauffeur took a wrong turn and stopped the car to reverse. Gavrilo Princip stepped onto the running-board and killed the Archduke and his wife.
The Shift toward Universal Conflict: - Diplomatic Manoeuvres: Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28 as a challenge to Serbia and her own declining prestige. Germany provided a "strong line" on July 5, assuming threats would yield peaceful success again. - Russia's Dilemma: Russia saw herself as the protector of the Slav states and feared Austro-German control of Constantinople and the Straits (Russia's "jugular vein"). - Strategical Factors: Mobilization plans rested entirely on railway timetables that could not be improvised. Once the wagons rolled, the process was irreversible. - The German Plan: Schlieffen (Chief of Staff $1892–1906$ ) believed Germany could not win on two fronts. His plan mandated knocking out France in the west before Russian mobilization was complete. This meant "mobilization means war" for Germany.
August 1914 Engagements: - German Strategy: Invading Belgium to funnel troops into France (the "Cannae" maneuver). This brought Great Britain into the war on August 4 (the only Allied Power to declare war on Germany first). - Belief in a Short War: Most expected the war to be over by Christmas. The British view was idealistic ("a war to end war"). - The Battle of the Frontiers: The French offensive in Lorraine was a disaster, losing the flower of their army to German fortifications. Joffre's failure allowed him to move forces to the left wing for the Battle of the Marne. - The Battle of the Marne: Kluck swung his army east of Paris, exposing his flank. General Gallieni (governor of Paris) saw the flaw. A gap opened between Kluck and Blow; British troops advanced into the emptiness ( $8$ miles a day). The German retreat on September 9 ended the war of movement. - Trenches and Deadlock: Trench warfare began at the Aisne on September 14. The "Race to the Sea" ended when the lines reached the coast. The British regular army was shattered at Ypres.

1915: Attrition and Side Shows

Technological and Strategic Stalemate: - The Machine Gun Advantage: Defense was mechanized (using railways for reinforcement), while the attack was still on foot/horse. Attackers faced a "duck's march" through mud and shell-holes. - New Combatants: Italy joined the Allies in May 1915 after an auction for her favor (Treaty of London). Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in September to gain Macedonia.
The Dardanelles and Gallipoli: - Objective: Turn Germany's flank via Turkey to aid Russia and reach Constantinople. - Execution: Churchill and Kitchener pushed for a naval attack (February 19). One line of missed mines (March 18) sank three old battleships, causing de Robeck to call off the naval attempt. - Land Campaign: Sir Ian Hamilton landed troops on April 25. Lack of maps (latest from $1906$ ), seniority-based leadership (General Stopford found asleep), and Turkish preparedness (Mustapha Kemal) led to failure. Evacuation occurred in January 1916 without a single casualty.
The Eastern Front breakthrough: - Gorlice-Tarnw: On May 2, the Germans and Austrians attacked on a $28$ -mile front. This was the only wide breakthrough of the war. Russia lost $750,000$ prisoners but survived by falling back into vast territory.
Scientific War: - Gas: First used by Germans at Ypres (April 22). - Submarines: Germany declared a blockade. The sinking of the Lusitania in May killed $100$ Americans, generating anti-German sentiment.
Home Front Industrialization: - The Shell Scandal: Shortages led to the fall of the Liberal Government and the rise of a Coalition under Asquith with Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions. - The Stokes Mortar: Lloyd George financed its production privately when the War Office refused. - Women in Work: Women entered factories and offices on a massive scale; skirts became shorter and corsets were discarded.

1916: Year of Mass Slaughter

Verdun: - Strategy: Falkenhayn aimed to "bleed the French white" at a symbolic point. The French fed $78$ divisions into the "mincing machine." - Outcome: French losses: $315,000$ ; German: $281,000$ . The French spirit was brought to the point of mutiny. Ptain's renown was established with "They shall not pass."
The Somme: - Objective: Joffre and Haig joined forces where the lines met. Haig believed in a breakthrough to Bapaume. - Day One (July 1): British suffered $60,000$ casualties ( $20,000$ killed) in the heaviest single-day loss in war history. Infantry were weighed down by $66\,lb$ of equipment. - Tanks: First used on September 15 in small numbers, prematurely losing the element of surprise.
The War at Sea: Jutland (May 31): - Combatants: Jellicoe (Grand Fleet) vs. Scheer (High Seas Fleet). $250$ vessels and $25$ admirals present. - Balance Sheet: British lost more ships ( $3$ battle cruisers) but the Germans fled. Jellicoe was criticized for caution but "could have lost the war in an afternoon."
Political Crises: - Russia: The Brusilov Offensive (June) shattered Austro-Hungarian unity but cost Russia over $1\,million$ casualties, paving the way for revolution. - Ireland: The Easter Rising (April) in Dublin was crushed; leaders were shot; the Republic was proclaimed. - Britain: Lloyd George replaced Asquith as Prime Minister (December), setting up a small War Cabinet to provide a "knock-out blow."

1917: Revolution and Intervention

U-boat Crisis: Unrestricted submarine warfare began January 31. Jellicoe admitted defeat was imminent. Lloyd George imposed the Convoy system on May 10 against Admiralty advice. Loss rates dropped from $25\%$ to $1\%$ .
USA Entry: US declared war on April 6 after the Zimmermann Telegram and ship sinkings. America was a "promissory note" for the future.
The Russian Revolutions: - March: The Tsar abdicated; a Provisional Government formed. Discipline collapsed. - November: Lenin and Trotsky seized power. Trotsky published the secret treaties. Lenin issued the Decree on Peace.
Failed Offensives: - Nivelle Offensive: Promised Laon in $24\,hours$ . Failure led to massive French mutinies ( $54$ divisions affected). - Passchendaele (3rd Ypres): Haig fought in the Flanders mud. British losses: over $300,000$ . No strategic gain.
Caporetto: Italian front collapsed on October 24. Retreated $70\,miles$ to the Piave. This led to the formation of the Supreme War Council at Versailles.

1918: The Final Gambles

Brest-Litovsk (March 3): Russia signed a dictated peace, losing Poland, the Baltic, and the Ukraine.
Ludendorff's Offensives: - Tactics: Secret concentration, no preliminary bombardment, use of light forces. - The Black Day (August 8): British tanks broke the German line near Amiens. Ludendorff realized victory was impossible.
Collapse of the Central Powers: - Bulgaria: Asked for armistice September 29 after Salonika offensive. - Austria-Hungary: Dissolved as nations like Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia proclaimed independence. Armistice November 3. - Turkey: Surrendered October 30 after the fall of Jerusalem and Damascus.
German Revolution and Armistice: - Mutiny: Sailors at Kiel mutinied (October 29). Revolution reached Berlin on November 9; the Kaiser fled to Holland. - Signature: Erzberger signed the armistice at Rethondes in the forest of Compigne. It came into force at $11\,a.m.$ on November 11.

1919: The Peace and Aftermath

The Peace Conference (Paris): - The Big Three: Wilson (US), Lloyd George (UK), Clemenceau (France). - The League of Nations: Wilson's primary goal, embedded in the Treaty of Versailles.
The Treaty of Versailles: - Provisions: Germany disarmed to $100,000$ men; Rhineland demilitarized and occupied; Saar mines to France for $15$ years. - Reparations: Fixed later. Germany accepted "War Guilt" (Clause 231).
Long-term Impact: - Death Toll: Germany/France each lost $1.5\,million$ ; Britain: $750,000$ ; Russia: more than all combined. - Political Map: End of four Empires (Habsburg, Ottoman, Romanov, Hohenzollern). Creation of new national states. - The Dual World: The estrangement of Soviet Russia from the West created the basic political pattern for the subsequent century.

Questions & Discussion

Question: Why did the Schlieffen Plan fail?
Response: The plan assumed a "Cannae" maneuver through Belgium, but its flaw was Paris. If the right wing went west of Paris, it left a gap; if east, it could be attacked on the flank. The Germans lacked the forces to contain Paris and swing around it. Additionally, Belgian resistance (wrecking railways) slowed the German supply line.
Question: What was the significance of the Battle of Jutland?
Response: Though the British lost more ships and tonnage, the German High Seas Fleet fled and never challenged British control for the remainder of the war. Jellicoe's caution preserved the Grand Fleet, which was the backbone of the blockade.
Question: How did the US entry change the war?
Response: It provided limitless credit and a psychological "promissory note," though most equipment (tanks, guns, planes) had to be supplied to the Americans by the British and French during $1917–18$ .