HIST 101 ‒ Foundations: What Is History & How Do Historians Work?

Definition & Scope of History

  • History = Study of Change Over Time
    • Encompasses every aspect of human society:
    • Political
    • Social
    • Economic
    • Scientific & Technological
    • Medical
    • Cultural & Intellectual
    • Religious
    • Military
  • Professional historians generally specialize by:
    • Specific theme/approach (e.g.cultural, diplomatic, environmental)
    • Distinct chronological period
    • Particular geographic region

Historians vs. Non-Historians: Core Contrasts

  • Views on Recurrence

    • Non-historians: "history repeats itself"; believe things were "always" a certain way.
    • Historians: Reject literal repetition—history is not a conscious agent; change is constant.

  • Romanticizing or Teleology

    • Non-historians: c"good old days" nostalgia or linear "story of progress."
    • Historians: Recognize simultaneous achievements & blunders; change is complex, non-binary.

  • Source Acquisition

    • Non-historians: Mainly consume television, movies, Internet, general books/magazines—often uncritical.
    • Historians: Seek primary sources in archives; read scholarly monographs, journals; must sometimes master foreign languages.

  • Source Criticism

    • Historians acknowledge every source has biases, omissions, contradictions, limitations.
    • Non-historians tend to accept information at face value if it is engaging.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

  • Primary Source = created in the actual time period being investigated (letters, diaries, government records, artifacts, etc.).
  • Secondary Source = later interpretation or synthesis (books, documentaries, articles).
  • Historians emphasize value of primaries but remain alert to their shortcomings.

Documentation & Scholarly Apparatus

  • Historians provide footnotes & bibliographies:
    • Allow verification & follow-up by other scholars.
    • Demonstrate thoroughness and honesty in crediting information origins.
    • Reveal the historianc's methodology, forming an evidence trail.

Historiography

  • Definition: History of historical writing, philosophy, and methodology.
  • Historians must grasp the historiography of their specialty to:
    • Distinguish facts vs. interpretations.
    • Understand how approaches have evolved & will keep evolving.
  • Multiple interpretations exist for every topic; consensus shifts with new evidence and perspectives.

Generalizations & Specificity

  • Non-historians often create broad generalizations about people, ideas, or eras.
  • Historians investigate the specific, detailed developments underpinning such claims and may critique or reject the generalizations.

Chronology & Periodization

  • Non-historians may treat time periods as fixed & absolute.
  • Historians use periodization as a flexible, pragmatic tool—convenient for teaching, cataloging, and organizing knowledge.
  • Recognize that labels (e.g., "Renaissance," "Industrial Revolution") are heuristics, not rigid boundaries.

Objectivity, Bias & Presentism

  • Complete objectivity is impossible: no historian can be 100\% neutral.
  • Good practice involves:
    • Identifying one's own limitations & biases.
    • Avoiding presentism (imposing present-day values on past actors).
    • Striving to understand historical subjects within their contemporary contexts—how & why they thought and behaved as they did.

Practical Implications

  • Critical Thinking: Historical methodology cultivates skepticism toward sources, fostering rigorous evidence evaluation.
  • Ethical Dimension: Acknowledging bias and giving proper credit combats intellectual dishonesty.
  • Real-World Relevance: Understanding complex causation helps avoid overly simplistic policy analogies (e.g., citing "history repeats" to justify modern decisions).