Study Guide on Behaviorism and Psychological Changes in the 20th Century
Historical Development of Behaviorism
Major developments in psychology, including behaviorism, typically arise from the combined efforts of multiple individuals.
John B. Watson is widely recognized as the founder of behaviorism.
Objective psychology in Russia predated the establishment of behaviorism in the United States.
Functionalists, such as James McKeen Cattell, significantly contributed to ideas leading toward behaviorism by emphasizing measurable aspects of human behavior without relying on introspection.
In 1904, Cattell expressed skepticism about limiting psychology to the study of consciousness.
He stressed the value of research contributions made using objective measures, akin to methods employed in physics and zoology.
Russian Objective Psychology
The concept of Inhibition was introduced by Ivan Sechenov in his seminal work, "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863/1965).
Sechenov demonstrated that stimulating one part of the nervous system could inhibit activity in another area, thereby underscoring the physiological underpinnings of behavior.
For instance, Eduard Weber's work provided insights into the voluntary control of involuntary behaviors, such as the suppression of a sneeze.
Ivan Sechenov:
Born in 1829, he initially pursued military engineering before switching to medicine, influenced by prominent physiologists and evolutionary thinkers of his time.
He aimed to elucidate psychic phenomena using the frameworks of associationism and materialism, proposing that all behavior is ultimately caused by external stimuli.
Ivan Pavlov's Contributions:
Ivan Pavlov (born in 1849 in Ryazan): Initially prepared for the priesthood but later gravitated towards the natural sciences at the Military Medical Academy near St. Petersburg, deeply influenced by Sechenov's successors.
Research on Digestion: Pavlov developed the innovative gastric fistula technique to meticulously investigate salivation responses to food, which he identified as an unconditioned stimulus. Through this research, he discovered conditioned reflexes, observing that associative stimuli (e.g., the sight of food) could elicit the same physiological responses (e.g., salivation).
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov explained this process as the formation of conditioned reflexes through the associative principles of contiguity and frequency.
Unconditioned Reflex: Innate responses naturally elicited by unconditioned stimuli (e.g., food inherently causes salivation).
Conditioned Reflex: Responses that are learned or conditioned through their association with unconditioned stimuli (e.g., salivation in response to a bell that has been consistently associated with food).
Contribution of Other Russian Psychologists
Vladimir Bekhterev (born in 1857):
Graduated from the Military Medical Academy and subsequently established the first experimental psychology laboratory in Russia.
He markedly diverged from Wundt’s introspective methods, instead focusing on overt behavior in relation to environmental stimuli. His work significantly influenced early U.S. behaviorism.
Bekhterev introduced the concept of "association reflex," which was very similar to Pavlov's conditioned reflex.
Alexander Luria and Lev Vygotsky:
These were prominent Russian psychologists in the Soviet Union whose work had a profound influence on fields such as clinical neuropsychology and cognitive development, respectively.
John B. Watson and the Founding of Behaviorism
John B. Watson’s Biography:
Born in 1878, Watson's challenging childhood, including a strict religious upbringing, influenced the development of his psychological views.
He attended Furman University and the University of Chicago, where he was exposed to the nascent principles of behaviorism.
Founding of Behaviorism:
Watson passionately advocated for a purely objective approach to psychology, placing strong emphasis on observable behavior.
His 1913 lecture, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," is widely regarded as the formal establishment of behaviorism as a distinct school of thought.
Behaviorism as a Discipline:
Watson defined psychology primarily as the prediction and control of behavior, consciously rejecting the introspective methods characteristic of earlier psychological approaches.
He emphasized an understanding of human behavior akin to the study of animal behavior.
Watson’s Views on Instincts
Initially, Watson acknowledged the presence of instincts in infants.
However, he later concluded that instincts were relatively unimportant in adult behavior.
Watson's perspective shifted significantly towards emphasizing the role of environmental influences in shaping behavior through learned experiences.
Classical Conditioning Principles and Learning
Conditioned Reflexes Explained:
The formation of a conditioned response occurs from consistently pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a change in behavior through associative principles.
A classic example is Pavlov’s dogs beginning to salivate at the sound of a bell, which had been previously associated with the presentation of food.
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:
Extinction: This phenomenon occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the accompanying unconditioned stimulus over time, leading to a gradual decrease and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response.
Spontaneous Recovery: Refers to the re-emergence of the conditioned response after a period without any further reinforcement or exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
Applications of Behavioral Principles
Behavioral Therapy:
Watson’s fundamental principles of behavior became foundational in the development of numerous techniques for behavior modification and therapy.
Child Rearing:
Watson advocated for objective, behaviorist approaches to parenting, specifically recommending limited physical affection towards children to foster independence.
Glossary
Conditioned reflex: A learned reflex.
Unconditioned reflex: An innate, unlearned reflex.
Stimulus-response (S-R) psychology: A psychological approach primarily focusing on the relationship between an external stimulus and the resultant reactive behavior.