Application of Motivation Concepts

Motivation is defined as the processes accounting for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
- Intensity: Refers to how hard an individual is trying.
- Direction: Refers to whether the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
- Persistence: Refers to how long an individual is willing to maintain their effort.

Early Theories (5): Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Motivation-hygiene theory, Self-determination theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Self-efficacy Theory, Reinforcement Theory, Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory.

Every individual possesses a hierarchy of five needs.
Only when one need is satisfied does the next one become dominant.
To motivate an employee, managers must understand their current level in the hierarchy and satisfy their needs at that specific level.

Proposes that three factors enhance employee motivation:
- Specific goals: Clear and well-defined objectives.
- Difficult goals: Challenging but achievable targets.
- Performance feedback: Information provided to employees about their progress.
Promotion Focus: Individuals strive for advancement and accomplishment, approaching conditions that move them closer to desired goals.
Prevention Focus: Individuals strive to fulfill duties and obligations, avoiding conditions that pull them away from desired goals.
Managerial Action: Give specific and difficult (but achievable) goals, and provide feedback on performance.

Self-Efficacy: The individual's belief that they are capable of performing a specific task.
Sources of Self-Efficacy:
- Enactive Mastery: Gaining relevant experience with the task or job.
- Vicarious Modeling: Becoming more confident by seeing someone else perform the task.
- Verbal Persuasion: Becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the necessary skills.
- Arousal: Increased energy (e.g., physiological or psychological excitement) which can boost self-efficacy if channeled correctly.
Higher self-efficacy leads to higher personal performance goals and ultimately, higher performance achieved.
Managerial Action: Increase employees' self-efficacy by setting difficult and specific tasks, fostering a self-fulfilling prophecy where belief in capability leads to actual capability.

Argues that individuals make comparisons of their job inputs (e.g., effort, experience, education, competence) and outcomes (e.g., salary, raises, recognition) relative to those of others, and then respond to any perceived inequities.
State of Equity: Exists when an individual perceives their input-to-outcome ratio to be equal to that of relevant others with whom they compare themselves, leading to a perception of fairness.
Perceived Inequity: Occurs when the ratio is seen as unequal, causing distress. Responses to perceived inequity include:
- Change Inputs: e.g., exerting less effort.
- Change Outcomes: e.g., seeking more pay.
- Distort Perceptions of Self: e.g.,