Reactions to the Industrial Revolution and Capitalism

Working Conditions: Long hours (up to 13 daily) and low wages.

Political Reform: Expanded voting rights and social reforms for working class.

Social Reform: Mutual aid societies; compulsory education (ages 6-12) from 1870-1914.

Urban Reform: Improved sanitation in cities.

Labor Unions: United workers for better conditions; significant membership by late 19th century.

Marxism: Marx and Engels' The Communist Manifesto (1848); class struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat.

China: Defeated by Britain in Opium Wars; failed modernization movement.

Ottoman Empire: Reforms to resist industrial powers; Tanzimat reforms included Western laws and education but were short-lived.