Southern Africa, 1500-1870 Study Guide

Definition of Apartheid: An ideology that mandated the legal separation of races and ethnic groups. This separation was evident in various facets of life, including:
- Education
- Housing
- Employment
- Marriage
Historical Context: Although apartheid was officially adopted by the Nationalist Party in 1948, its roots extend back into earlier history, significantly influencing writings and interpretations of South African history.
The intertwining of history and myth in South Africa complicates the understanding of its past, as many historical narratives were shaped by the context of apartheid.

Southern Africa features a diverse range of climates:
- Namib Desert: One of the driest places on Earth, largely uninhabitable.
- Kalahari Desert: Supports foraging and pastoral lifestyles.
- Natal Area: Noted for being wet enough to sustain intensive farming and cattle.
- Cape of Good Hope: Has a Mediterranean climate, enabling the cultivation of crops like grapes and wheat, contrary to many other parts of sub-Saharan Africa affected by tropical diseases.

Dutch East India Company (VOC): Established an outpost at the Cape in 1652, primarily as a resupply station for ships traveling to India.
Cape Town Evolution: Initially a small trading post, it grew into a significant city, requiring Dutch settlers to expand outwards for agricultural endeavors due to a lack of local food production by indigenous inhabitants (Khoikhoi and San).

Khoikhoi and San: The first groups encountered by the Dutch.
- Khoikhoi: Known as "Hottentots" by the Dutch; practiced transhumant pastoralism and lived in decentralized chiefdoms. The name refers to a cultural practice rather than a static ethnic identity.
- San: Foragers with a more mobile lifestyle, occupying less hospitable lands. Their adaptation strategies included formidable resistance against Dutch expansion due to their flexibility and knowledge of unpredictable terrains.

Traditional historiography has often treated ethnic identities rigidly; modern scholarship suggests:
- Ethnic identities were fluid, with individuals shifting allegiances and adopting new identities (e.g., Khoikhoi becoming San and vice versa based on circumstances such as cattle loss).
- The notion of distinct and permanent tribes is a construction of the nineteenth century, influenced by apartheid ideologies.

As the Dutch moved into the interior, they relied on local labor, primarily using Khoikhoi and San as indentured servants.
Importation of slaves from locations like Madagascar began during this period.
Coloureds and Griqua: Terms used to refer to people of mixed descent in the Cape, reflecting the cultural interplay between Dutch and Khoikhoi peoples.
Trekboers: Dutch settlers who migrated seasonally in search of grazing land and adopted pastoral farming practices, utilizing firearms and organized military formations (commandos). They employed mobile fortifications known as "laagers" for defense.

Between the 17th and 18th centuries, many Trekboers began to fill territories south of the Orange River and west of the Fish River.
The burgeoning population and land occupation mirrored ecological invasions seen in introduced species (e.g., rabbits in Australia).
The Khoikhoi's disappearance as a distinct group was a consequence of land loss and cultural integration into settler societies.

The British acquired the Cape Colony in 1805 during the Napoleonic wars, primarily to control the sea route to India.
Antislavery Movements: The burgeoning movement in Britain conflicted with Boer slave-owning practices, leading to tensions and uprisings. The British justification for control included claims of protecting people from the impacts of Boer expansion.

As British settlers moved, they encountered organized Bantu-speaking farmer societies (Xhosa, Sotho, Tswana, and Herero) with established agricultural practices. These societies were characterized by:
- Advanced military organization and centralized states.
- Cattle as pivotal economic and cultural symbols.

Shaka Zulu: Renowned for his military prowess and state-building efforts against both external and internal threats.
- Established a Zulu state through military discipline and innovative tactics, utilizing exclusively stabbing spears instead of traditional throwing ones.
- His rule led to significant population disruptions and migrations due to warfare, often referred to as the Mfecane (crushing) period.
Mzilikazi: Initially a minor chief, he rose to prominence, founding the Ndebele state characterized by integration and ethnic fluidity.
- Utilized military prowess not just for aggression but also to provide a haven for those fleeing conflict.
Moshoeshoe: Founder of Lesotho, recognized for his diplomatic skills in engaging with Europeans while incorporating diverse ethnic elements into his community.
- Known for establishing a fortified state that provided political stability in the face of upheaval.

The Great Trek of the 1830s marked a response to British policies in the Cape, firmly establishing the mythic narrative of Afrikaner nationalism.
The Trek was characterized as a spiritual journey for Boers seeking independence from British oppression, fueled by religious justification for land ownership and sovereignty.
Portrayals of the Great Trek are nuanced, embodying social and class dynamics alongside ethnic tensions between Dutch and English settlers.

Dutch colonial wars and expansion led to the seizure of land from Xhosa and other African groups amid rising tensions due to land calls from migrating Boers.
War of the Axe: Unfolding conflicts between Xhosa and the British over judicial matters, leading to increased British territorial annexation and Xhosa disempowerment.
Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement: A desperate attempt to reclaim power that resulted in famine and devastation, facilitating British dominance.

Post-British annexation, the Afrikaners entered a transformative period, inventing an identity rooted in a shared narrative of the Great Trek and Christianity.
The discovery of valuable minerals (diamonds and gold) incited renewed British interest and political friction over rights and governance between settlers and indigenous Afrikaner populations.

Comparisons with the U.S. illustrate similarities in settler-indigenous relations and the Eurocentric constructs justifying possession of land. However, differences arose due to varying disease impacts and internal social divisions among settlers.
Notably, southern Africa maintains a complex demographic interaction between competing European and African identities, continuing into modern political structures.