Sports Acquisition

Skills = learnt and developed from an ability after a period of practice => need to practice to improve skill level. Learnt on the basis of existing ability -> practicing skills and drills

Are aesthetic => look good
Are controlled => skilful performer is in charge controlling the rate and timing of the skill
Are efficient and smooth => performed without any wasted energy

Skilful performance has 2 elements

Cognitive part = of the skill requires thought before action

Motor part = requires control and efficient movement

Skill classification

Skills are classified on a sliding scale called a continuum

An open skill = effected by an environment => sports performer has to adapt to their environment to execute the skill

A closed skill = involves less decision making as it has a predictable environment the performer can take their time to execute the skill

Discrete skill = short time span with clear beginning and end

Serial skill = several discrete elements which are put together

Continuous skill = has no clear beginning or end

Fine skill = small delicate muscle movements

Gross skill = use large muscle group movements

Self paced skill = controlled by the individual and the performer, rate is decided by the performer

Externally paced = controlled by factors out of control of performer

Low organised skill = broken down into parts or subroutines

High organised skill = hard to break down as it is fast in execution

Complex skill = involves high amount of decision making and has a large cognitive or thinking element

Simple skill = has a limited amount of information to process. The skill has a smaller cognitive element

Skill classifications table (HMW)

Skill name	Definition	Sporting example	Types of practice
Open skill	Affected by a sporting environment => the performer has to make decisions in response to their surroundings	Football => passing a ball during a match, players environment is constantly changing => required to adapt technique based on position of teammates and opponents Hockey => Dribbling/ driving with the ball up the pitch, avoiding being tackled by fast-moving change of direction Rugby => Tackle as the timing and style = influenced by ball carriers actions + players positions on pitch Netball => Receiving a pass, player must react to ball's flight and direction and also dodge opponents and move into space => adjusting their technique Basketball => player must perceive and respond to the ball, their team and the opposition all at once	Varied practice
Closed Skill	A skill performed in a predicted environment => when performer can repeat the skill and actions continuously without making as many decisions	Diving => A diver is in complete control of the rate and the timing of their performance in a pike position 2.5 somersault, 2.5 twist dive Discus throw => self-paced, requires the same movement sequence which is repeated, the athlete controls the timing and execution of the throw Football => penalty kick, the skill is performed from a set position with a predictable distance from the goal Tennis => Tennis serve, repeated action with repeated power and technique Gymnastics floor routine => performer is in control of the specific skills within the set routine and what happens next Hockey => Penalty flick, controlled environment with the same action in the same environment Basket ball => free throw	Massed practice
Discrete Skill	A skill that has a clear beginning and end, has one short and sharp action	Tennis => tennis serve has a fast action after which the player stops and repeats if the serve doesn't go in or if successful will move onto the next movement Hockey => a penalty flick has a single movement and a defined action Shot put => the throw itself, which has a clear beginning and end Football => penalty corner, player kicking the ball in from the corner arc is a repeated movement. Golf => drive in golf	Massed practice
Serial skill	Several discrete elements which are put together	Gymnastics => a routine involves a series of movements like a run-up for vault then doing a twist and landing Athletics => Triple jump is composed of three discrete skills: The hop, the step and the jump Basketball => A shooting drill can be a serial skill if it involves a sequence e.g. a three-pointer, a mid-range shot then a layup all performed in one continuous flow Rugby => taking a conversion kick involves a run-up, followed by the kicking action itself Football/Hockey => dribbling and passing Cricket => bowling in cricket	Progressive part practice
Continuous Skill	A skill that has no clear beginning or end	Running => marathon is a continuous movement that can be performed for extended distances Cycling => involves continuous pedalling motion Swimming => A continuous motion of strokes without a distinct start or finish Rowing => a repetitive and continuous action	Whole part whole practice
Fine Skill	A skill which consists of small fine muscle movements	Darts => throwing a dart accurately to hit the bullseye Gymnastics/dance => many intricate moves and routines require small and precise muscle movements for perfect execution Shooting => shooting a pistol	Massed practice
Gross Skill	A skill which uses large muscle group movements	Cricket => hitting a ball with the bat Cricket => bowling the ball Basketball => jumping for a rebound Long jump => jumping and leaping as far as you can for the take off is the explosive power Sprinting => block start Rugby => scrum	Distributed practice
Self-paced Skill	A skill which is controlled by the individual/performer and the rate is also controlled	Javelin throw = controlled when started Long jump and triple jump are started when the athlete is ready Tennis serve => athlete decides when to serve	Fixed practice
Externally-paced Skill	A skill which is controlled by all external factors which may effect it	Start of a tennis rally => receiving the ball determined by the opponent Penalty shot in basketball => blown by a whistle and ten second timer Netball => 3 second timer to pass the ball	Mental practice
Low organised skill	A skill which can be broken down easily into parts and sub-routines	Swimming stroke as the arm action, leg action and body position = easily identified and practiced if needed	Whole-part-whole practice
High organised skill	A skill which is not broken down easily into parts	A volley in football => as the action is very quick and the sub-routines merge quickly as the skill is performed	Whole-practice
Complex skill	A skill that requires decision making using lots of information when performed	A dribble in hockey => as the player has to take into account the position of the players, as well as concentrating on the ball and the control of the stick + player needs to think about the cognitive parts of the skill such as the position of the stick and the position of the opponents	Progressive part practice
Simple skill	A skill that requires few decisions when being performed Performer does not need to think too much about the action	A forward roll in gymnastics	Mass practice

Transfer of learning

= the theory explains that the learning and performance of one skill can be affected by the learning and performance of another

There are 4 types of transfer:

Positive = occurs when learning in one task is enhanced by learning in another task e.g. learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer

E.g. similar arm actions of overarm volleyball serve and tennis serve, similar actions of basketball pass and netball pass

Tends to happen when 2 skills are similar so the movements of one skill help the action of another

Negative = occurs in the initial stages of learning, but in this case the learning and performance of one skill is hindered by the learning and performance of another

There may be some similarity in the skills but it can cause confusion but can cause confusion when they are not similar
E.g. badminton and tennis = played on court divided by net: serving action in tennis uses arm whereas badminton uses wrist action => serve is different => negative transfer

Zero = zero transfer there is no similarity at all, e.g. swimming and judo = so different that there is no learning effect from one to the other

When the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of the other

Bilateral = a transfer is learned from a skill transferred from limb to limb across the body => coaches encourage them to use both sides

Happens when the learner of one skill is transferred across the body in the way that a right-footed footballer would be encouraged to use the left foot when required => impact of a shot from the left foot is equal to the impact of the shot on the right foot

How do coaches influence positive transfer

Offer realistic approach to training and practice => allowing for early success and progress slowly e.g. using cones or rugby tackle bags to be replaced by real people in small games and then full scale games
Maintain similar environmental conditions on both situations
Ensure practices replicate the performance environment i.e. add in defenders

Types and methods of practice

Whole practice = when its practiced in full, ideal way to teach as it involves performing the skill in it's entirety

Maintains the flow and timing of the skill => kinaesthesis of the learner develops as the practice is done in full
Difficult for beginners + harder to be corrected
Performer cannot focus on the whole task
Skill = fast, ballistic and discrete
The performer is advanced in the autonomous state of leaning when the movement details are precise and able to cope with the demands of the whole task
E.g. Golf swing

Massed practice = when there is no rest intervals given between each component of the training session. It is used when a coach wants to promote a high level of fitness

Simple skills => demand little attention => the performer can still focus on the task after numerous attempts
Discrete skills = with a clear end, usually short and sharp and can be undertaken easily without rest
Builds endurance
Risk of injury

Distributed practice = is when a rest interval is given to allow recuperation. Feedback + coaching can be given during break

Beginners who can focus of refining the skill
Performers who are unfit
Performers who need encouragement from coach to improve motivation

Variable practice: uses different methods to achieve a learning goal + performing a task in a different situation. Aims to provide the performer with the ability to adapt a skill

Good for open skills where the sporting environment tend to change
Often used with beginners, allows them to progress with more difficulty gradually
Not very predictable => harder for beginners to know what to do

Whole part whole method = involves repeating the whole series of actions to perfect them.

Good for dance and gymnastics

Whole part whole practice = involves repeating and breaking down the action to perfect it and then back into whole.

Beginner may be asked to do full skill then broken down into parts then practiced it as a whole again
Better control and idea of skill
Demanding for beginners
Takes longer and is time consuming

Progressive-part method of practice = involves several sub-routines to form the whole movement. Each part is practiced with the next link added each time. Full action can be put together

Ball toss
Tennis serve
Good for beginners as it breaks down the skill and builds confidence
Takes longer => time consuming and boring => athlete loses interest

Mental practice = involves the performer rehearsing a task mentally often using imagery techniques

Cognitive rehearse of physical skill
Can be used as part of a warmup to provide preparation for the task ahead
An games player may mentally rehearse a move or set of play before kick off
Improves confidence and lowers anxiety => helps to stimulate muscle receptors => the player is more prepared + their reaction time is increased
Develops cognitive ability and improves decision making or the player

Mental practice can be external + internal

External mental practice = involves forming an image of yourself performing the skill as if you were on TV

Internal mental practice = looks at the performance from within i.e. imagining what it feels like to perform the skill and looking at the mental control of how the skill can be improved

Fixed practice = doing the same skill in the same conditions repetitively

Good for beginners as it builds consistency => muscle memory
Gets boring => athlete looses interest

Types of guidance: use of guidance and feedback

Visual guidance = Guidance that can be seen by demonstrations and watching the whole action => often used when a performer is just starting out in learning.

Learners can see whole action

Coaches should ensure that they repeat the demonstration
The key points of the skill should be highlighted
Should be reinforced using encouraging retention of the skill in the memory

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mental image of the skill
Draws attention to key points
Better for less complex skills where less info is given

Can demotivate learner if a high complex skill as won't be able to do it
Can overload beginners with information
Needs to be accurate and clear otherwise skill can be learnt correctly

Verbal guidance = Using words to explain a task: terminology and phrases associated to certain skills can be made simple and straightforward in clear verbal explanation

Players must understand the basic terminology used
Remember instructions
Interpret the words and actions
Coach must speak to performers during demonstration to make the instructions clear
Can help to build a correct mental image in the memory of a skill

Advantages

Disadvantages

Tactics can be explained
Gives technical info => key points and cues
Feedback can be given immediately

Players must understand basic terminology used
Overload beginners with info
Learners lose concentration easily

Manual guidance = Physically supporting a performer during a movement used when skills being learnt are dangerous or complex. Coaches and teachers use hands on approach to ensure safety i.e. gymnastics coach assisting a backwards walkover

Involves a forced response

Advantages

Disadvantages

Builds confidence
Eliminates danger
Gives early feel for whole skill
Fears of skill due to anxiety = reduced if the support is on hand to help the performer

Learner becomes dependent on support and interferes with kinaesthetic awareness
Proximity of coach may be upsetting and off putting for the individual
Can have detrimental impact on performance if it is overused
May loose confidence gaining the task without the physical support

Mechanical guidance = using artificial aids to help a performance => involves the use of equipment to help support the learner whilst practicing the skill

Advantages

Disadvantage

Promotes confidence and ensures safety for the learner when there is an element of danger

i.e. rock climbing + gives them a sense that they can perform the skill

Eliminates danger helping to prevent injury
Can be used with disabled athletes => allowing a sense of completion of the task which can be developed further

Learner can become dependent on the form of guidance => interferes with the feel of the task
The feel of the movement with the guidance is different to the actual movement
The learner does not get the opportunity to correct their mistakes in the technique
Motivation can be lost if the performer thinks the skill is not being performed independently + incorrect intrinsic feedback could encourage bad habits if feedback is not given in addition to the mechanical support

Types of feedback

Feedback = information to aid error connection

a vital part of information processing which can help provide confidence and motivation to the performer.

Intrinsic feedback = happens within the performer => information received by the athlete as a direct result of producing a movement through the kinaesthetic senses feelings from muscles joints and balance

The performer has developed a sense of kinaesthesis is able to know if the hit on the ball was good or not without being told

Extrinsic feedback = feedback which comes from an outside source -> the feedback comes from the results and match analysis

Knowledge of results -> the outcome
Knowledge of performance -> how well the performer played

E.g. listening to coaches comments, watching videos, final score in a game

As player gains experience the feedback may come internally = intrinsic

Positive feedback = involves rewards from praises in performance. This helps to strengthen the S-R bond and can be extremely motivating to the athlete

Entails information about what was good during the athletes performance
Keeps motivation to maintain the athletes effort

Negative feedback = this can be in the form of criticism and may be cantered around poor aspects of a performance or results

Equally as important as positive feedback
Intention is to remove bad habits and to eliminate errors
It gives clarity on what needs to be improved

Feedback should be:

Concise
Easy to understand
Not too much and enough to get improvements
Constructive -> focus on a weakness and how to improve
Positive and highlight strengths
Specific to the athletes sport