APES Midterm

Mod 0 Vocabulary:

• Environment- The sum of all the conditions surrounding us that influence life. 

• Environmental science-  The field of study that looks at interactions among human systems and those found in nature.

• Ecosystem- A particular location on earth with interacting biotic and abiotic components.

• Biotic- Living

• Abiotic- Nonliving 

• Environmentalism- A social movement that seeks to protect the environment through lobbying, activism, and education.

• Environmental s65tudies- The field of study that includes environmental science and additional subjects such as environmental policy, economics, literature, and ethics. 

• Sustainability- Living on Earth in a way that allows humans to use its resources without depriving future generations of those resources. 

• Scientific method- An objective method to explore the natural world, draw inferences from it, and predict the outcome of certain events, processes, or changes. 

• Hypothesis- A testable conjecture about how something works. 

• Variable- Any categories, conditions, factors, or traits that differ in the natural world or in experimental situations. 

• Independent variable- A variable that is not dependent on other factors. 

• Dependent variable- A variable that is dependent on other factors. 

• Control group- In a scientific investigation, a group that experiences exactly the same conditions as the experimental group, except for the single variable under study. 

• Replication- That data collection p[rocedure of taking repeated measurements. 

• Sample size (n)- the number of times a measurement is replicated in data collection. 

Mod 24 Vocabulary: 

• Tragedy of the commons- The tendency of shared, limited resources to become depleted if it is not regulated in some way. 

• Externality - An area similar to a suburb, but unconnected to any central city or densely populated area.  

Module 31 Vocabulary:

• Ecological footprint- A measure of the area of land and water an individual, population, or activity requires to produce all the resources it consumes and process the waste it generates. 

• Carbon Footprint- A measure of the total carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses emissions from the activities, both direct and indirect, of a person, country, or other entity. 

Module 32 Vocabulary:

• Sustainable development- Development that balances current human well-being and economic advancement with resource management for the benefit of future generations. 

• Maximum sustainable yield (MSY)- The largest quality of a renewable resource that can be harvested indefinitely. 

• Environmental indicators- Describes the current state of an environmental system or the Earth. 

• Anthropogenic- Derived from human activities. 

Class Notes: 

• What is environmental science?

• Interdisciplinary study of humanity’s relationship with other organisms and the physical environment

• Encompasses a wide range of disciplines

• Requires understanding the relationships, identifying problems, evaluating risks, and examining solutions

• What is sustainability?

• Sustainability: maintaining a resource, preserving a resource for future need, using a natural resource wisely for present and future; also referred to as:

• Sustainable development

•  Environmental sustainability

• Tragedy of the commons (Garrett Hardin)

  • First posited in 1968 by American ecologist Garret Hardin

  • situation where shared environmental resources are overused and exploited, and eventually depleted, posing risks to everyone involved.

• Timeline of environmental science in the U.S.

  • Beginning: 

    • Transcendentalist- New england 

      • Spiritual movement - religion 

      • Emerson Nature essay 

      • Thoreau: simple living 

    • Civil War= focus shift 

• Marsh- Man+Nature 

• Teddy Roosevelt 

• National Parks Service (1916)

• FDR New deal 

• Programs in parks, trails, roads, fire towers- make jobs 

• Civilian Conservation corps- projects like building dams 

  • Carson “Silent spring” 

  • Cuyahoga RIver: Catches Fire for the 13th time 

  • EPA founded

    • Clean Water Act

    • Clean Air Act Amendments 

    • Earth day  

• Conservation vs. preservation 

  • Conservation: moderate use

  • Preservation: no use

• Pinchot, Muir, and Roosevelt

  • Gifford Pinchot: 

    • Conservationist; director of Forest Service

    • Scientific study and management

    • “Sustainable Yield”

    • Utilitarian: Need

    • Friends with Teddy, comes back to the U.S. with knowledge of environment

  • John Muir:

    • Preservationist, Naturalist; devoted hiker

    • Founder of Sierra Club

    • Nature should be untouched; for all citizens

    • Hetch Hetchy Valley

    • Push leaving areas untouched

  • Theodore Roosevelt

    • Conservationist/Preservationist

    • Greatest president concerning environment

    • Land set aside led to the formation of the U.S. National Parks Service after his term

• National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 

  • Founded in 1970

  • Mission: to protect human health and the environment

  • Leads the nation’s environmental science, research, education, and assessment efforts

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

  • Federal government must consider the environmental impact of a proposed federal action

  • Ex: new highways, dam construction

• Writing an environmental impact statement (EIS): 3 steps

  • The nature of the proposal and why it is needed

  • The environmental impacts of the proposal, including short-term and long-term effects

  • Alternatives to lessen the adverse effects of the proposal

• Environmental ethics: ethics, values, worldview

  • Ethics: ethics that considers the moral basis or environmental responsibility and how far this responsibility extends

  • Values: to determine how humans should relate to the natural environment

  • Worldview: Commonly shared perspective based on a collection of our basic values that helps us:

    • Make sense of the world

    • Understand our place and purpose in it

    • Determine right and wrong behaviors

• Environmental worldview: anthropocentric, biocentric, ecocentric

  • Anthropocentric: Human-centered

    • Humans have intrinsic value: nature is exists to provide for us

    • Any concerns for the environment are derived from human interest

    • Different subsets exist

      • Unlimited use of resources vs. government stepping in to protect nature

      • STEWARDSHIP

  • Biocentric: Life-centered

    • ALL species on earth have EQUAL intrinsic value

    • Can take this to varying degrees:

      • Our responsibility to protect endangered species

      • Protect every single living thing

  • Ecocentric: EQUAL value on ALL species AND their ecosystems

  • Includes non-living factors 

  • Two different types:

    • Environmental wisdom: adapt our needs to nature, not nature to our needs

    • Deep ecology: humans have no right to interfere with nature; created by Naess, Devall & Sessions in the 1970s

• Experimental design

Mod 5 Vocabulary:

Hydrologic cycle- the movement of water around the biosphere among reservoir sources and sinks.

Transpiration- The release of water from leaves into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.

Evapotranspiration- the combined amount of evaporation and transpiration.

Runoff- Hydroelectricity generation in which water is retained behind, a low, small dam or no dam.

Mod 21 Vocabulary:

Watershed- all land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, river, lake, or wetland.

Mod 27 Vocabulary:

Aquifer- pore space found within permeable layers of rock and sediment underneath the soil that store groundwater.

Unconfined aquifer- porous rock covered by soil.

Confined aquifer- Surrounded by a layer of impermeable rock or clay, which impedes water flow to or from the aquifer.

Water table- the uppermost level at which the groundwater in a given area fully saturates the rock or soil.

Groundwater recharge- The process by which water from precipitation percolates through the soil into groundwater.

Spring- water that naturally percolates up to the surface.

Artesian well- A well created by drilling a hole into a confined aquifer.

Water footprint- Total daily per capita use of fresh water for a country or the world.

Furrow irrigation- A form of irrigation where a farmer digs trenches, or furrows, along the crop rows, and fills them with water.

Flood irrigation- A form of irrigation where an entire field is flooded with water,

Spray irrigation- A form of irrigation where water is pumped into an apparatus that contains a series of spray nozzles.

Drip irrigation- A form of irrigation where a slowly dripping hose on the ground or buried beneath the soil delivers water directly to the plant roots.

Cone of depression- An area surrounding a well that does not contain groundwater.

Module 48 Vocabulary:

Levee- An enlarged bank built up on each side of a river.

Dike- Structure built to prevent ocean water from flooding adjacent land.

Dam- A barrier that runs across a river or stream to control the flow of water

Reservoir- The body of water created by damming a river or stream

Fish ladder- A stair-like structure that allows migrating fish to get around a dam.

Desalination- The process for obtaining fresh water by removing the salt from salt water. (also called desalinization)

Distillation- A process of desalination in which water is boiled and the resulting steam is captured and condensed to yield pure water.

Reverse osmosis- A process of desalination in which water is forced through a thin semi permeable membrane at high pressure.

Case Studies:

Aral Sea- The Aral sea, on the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, was once the fourth largest lake. Since the two rivers that fed the lake were diverted, its surface area has declined by 60% and the lake has split into two parts; North and South Aral Sea.

Klamath River- the iron gate dam is one of four dams that are scheduled to be removed by 2024 to return a more natural flow to the Klamath River. Doing so should help salmon migration and improve the abundance of plants along the river that rely on the disturbances caused by seasonal scouring by rushing waters.

Ogallala Aquifer- the largest aquifer in the United States. The aquifer has declined by about 16 feet from 1950 to 2015, mostly due to withdrawals for irrigation that have exceeded the aquifer's rate of recharge.

Chesapeake Bay- Watershed spans parts of six states and the District of Columbia. The bay receives water from a very large area that contains substantial human activities that can affect water quality.

Hubbard River-the effects of natural and human-caused disturbances on forest ecosystems in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The research at Hubbard Brook has led to a better understanding of environmental issues.

Colorado River- Lake Mead is a human made reservoir created by damming the Colorado River with the Hoover DAm. The lake has declined to only 35 percent of its volume.

Class Notes:

Explain the processes that move water through the 4 different spheres of the environment

Atmosphere - gasses that surround the Earth

Lithosphere- precipitation

Biosphere- precipitation

Hydrosphere- precipitation

Lithosphere - outer layer of the Earth

Biosphere- assimilation/absorption

Hydrosphere- percolation/infiltration

Atmosphere- evaporation

Biosphere - all living things on Earth

Hydrosphere- elimination

Lithosphere- elimination

Atmosphere- perspiration/transpiration

Hydrosphere - amount of water on Earth

Lithosphere- intake/absorption

Atmosphere- evaporation

Biosphere- assimilation/absorption/uptake/food

Identify the storage compartments for water; explain whether or not each is a reliable water resource for human consumption

Compartment

Percentage

Potable?

Available?

Residency Time

Oceans

97.5%

No

No

Thousands of years

Glaciers/Ice Caps

1.97%

Yes

No

Tens of thousands of years

Groundwater

0.5%

Yes

Yes

Hundreds of years

Rivers

0.02%

Yes

Yes

2 weeks

Lakes

0.009%

Yes

Yes

10 years

Atmosphere

0.001%

Yes

Yes

10 days

Differentiate between in-stream and off-stream water use and explain how this affects the 3 sectors that use water in the United States

In-stream water use- activities that utilize water while it remains within a river or stream channel

recreation, fish habitat maintenance, and navigation,

off-stream water use- involves withdrawing water from a source and transporting it to a different location for purposes

Agriculture, industrial processes, and domestic supply

Agriculture

Largest consumer

70% of world's freshwater

Increased more than 100% last century

Industry

Uses 19% of world's freshwater

Tripped since 1960’s

Higher demand

Domestic

Uses 10% of world's freshwater

Grown 600% since 1960’s

Understand how urban development and deforestation alter the water budget

Deforestation

Reducing transpiration: Trees release water vapor into the air through transpiration, which cools the air and can help form clouds that affect rainfall.

Increasing evaporation: disrupt evaporation levels, drying out the air.

Increasing runoff: increase runoff by reducing the amount of rainwater that tree roots soak up. increased risk of floods

Changing the climate: reducing the amount of carbon.

Urban development

Increasing storm runoff: increase storm runoff by adding impervious surfaces. alter the flow, temperature, and quality of streams.

Distinguish between unconfined and Artesian aquifers

Artesian aquifers

under pressure due to layers of impermeable material above and below the aquifer

When a well is drilled into an artesian aquifer, the water can rise to the surface without a pump because the internal pressure

Unconfined aquifers

These aquifers are not under pressure open to the atmosphere and are bounded by the water table at the top

Water in an unconfined aquifer needs to be pumped to the surface

Identify the consequences of floodplain development and overdrafting of aquifers

Floodplains are some of the most valuable ecosystems on Earth, providing essential habitat for wildlife, improving water quality, and protecting human communities.

Increased flooding

Habitat loss

Water quality issues

development has degraded water quality, which led to toxic algal blooms

Reduced flood protection

Aquifer overdraft occurs when the amount of groundwater extracted from an aquifer is greater than the amount of water that can be replenished

Groundwater depletion

Land subsidence- Sinkholes

Environmental damage

Understand the criteria for classification as a wetland; explain the benefits of wetlands

Wetlands – areas saturated by groundwater or surface water at a frequency and duration to support specialized vegetation

Marshes, swamps, tidal flats- all variations of wetlands

3 Indicators

Hydrology- type of water

Soil type

Vegetation

3 Benefits

Flood control

Purify water

Habitat for wildlife

Part 2: Water Pollution

Mod 47 Vocabulary:

Point source- a distant location from which pollution is directly produced.

Nonpoint source- a diffuse area that produces pollution

Homeostasis- the ability to experience relatively stable internal conditions in their body.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)- A group of industrial compounds that were once used to manufacture plastic and insulate electrical transformers.

Mod 48 Vocabulary:

Eutrophication- Excess nutrients from human activities that make their way into water bodies; it causes nutrient pollution that alters food webs and harms water quality.

Oxygen sag curve- the relationship of oxygen concentrations to the distance from a point source of decomposing sewage or pollutants.

Thermal pollution- occurs when humans cause a substantial change in the temperature of a water body.

Thermal shock- A dramatic change in temperature that can kill many species.

Mod 52 Vocabulary:

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)- The amount of oxygen a quantity of water uses over a period of time at specific temperature.

Cultural eutrophication- An increase in fertility in a body of water, the result of anthropogenic inputs of nutrients.

Fecal coliform bacteria- a group of microorganisms that live in the intestines of humans, other mammals, and birds that serve as an indicator species for potentially harmful microorganisms associated with contaminated sewage.

Septic system- a relatively small and simple sewage treatment system, made up of a septic tank and a leach field, often used for homes in rural areas.

Septic tank- a large container that receives wastewater from a home as part of a septic system.

Sludge- solid waste material from wastewater.

Septage- a layer of fairly clear water found in the middle of a septic tank.

Leach field- a component of a septic system, made up of underground pipes laid out below the surface of the ground.

Mod 54 Vocabulary:

Clean Water Act- Legislation that supports the “protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and recreation in and on the water” by maintaining and, when necessary, restoring the chemical, physical, and biological properties of surface water.

Safe Drinking Water Act- Legislation that sets the national standards for safe drinking water.

Maximum contaminant level (MCL)- The standard for safe drinking water established by the EPA under the Safe Drinking Water Act

Case Studies:

Gulf of Mexico- drains water from more than one-third of the United States and, in doing so, carries phosphorus to the Gulf of Mexico. In the Gulf, this phosphorus fertilizes the algae, causing it to rapidly grow and subsequently die. The dead algae then decompose, which consumes most of the oxygen in the water. This results in a dead zone that causes some species to leave the area and other less mobile species to die.

Exxon Valdez- Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, spilling 11 million gallons of oil. The ecologically sensitive location, season of the year, and large scale of this spill resulted in one of the largest environmental disasters in U.S. history.

Chesapeake Bay- Watershed spans parts of six states and the District of Columbia. The bay receives water from a very large area that contains substantial human activities that can affect water quality.

Deepwater Horizon- On April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded and sank in the Gulf of Mexico, releasing millions of gallons of crude oil. The spill was the largest in U.S. history at the time. Investigations found that the disaster was preventable and was caused by failures in risk management, technology, mechanical equipment, procedures, spill response planning, and human factors.The oil killed wildlife, impacted fisheries and tourism, and had other environmental consequences.

Class Notes:

Define water pollution.

Degradation of physical, chemical, or biological properties of water- beyond normal conditions.

Water Quality- determines how water can be used

Domestic (highest standards)

Industrial

Agricultural (lowest standards)

Identify the major laws that have an impact on water quality in the United States.

Federal standards set by the EPA

Established threshold (maximum) concentrations or conditions

States must adopt these standards or develop more stringent standards

Drinking water standards are more stringent than surface water standards

Differentiate between point and nonpoint source pollution and provide examples.

Point source – distinct and confined locations

Example: discharge pipes

Problem has been greatly reduced due to federally mandated permit system (NPDES- National Pollution Discharge Elimination System)

Nonpoint source – broader and more regional

Closely coupled with land use (especially agricultural practices)

More difficult to control, trying to regulate through watershed water quality plans

Explain how excess nutrients in a body of water can lead to a dead zone.

Eutrophication causes a thick growth of algae on the surface

Algae mat blocks light from getting to photosynthetic organisms lower in the water, therefore these organisms die

Dead photosynthetic organisms are decomposed by bacteria, therefore DO concentrations become extremely low

Fish and aquatic organisms that require DO die

Identify the major pollutants from the Clean Water Act and describe their impact on the environment.

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand): High BOD levels deplete oxygen in water, harming fish and other aquatic life.

TSS (Total Suspended Solids): Sediment can cloud water, block sunlight for plants, and smother aquatic organisms.

Fecal Coliform: Bacteria indicating sewage contamination, which can cause waterborne diseases.

Understand the process of wastewater treatment from start to finish. Be able to explain how a septic system works in a similar way.

Three Phases of Wastewater Treatment

Primary (Preliminary) – settling, filtering, skimming (grease); physical treatment: raw, untreated sludge; 50% cleaner

Secondary – biological treatment: protozoans, zoological, decomposition (aerobic), activated sludge; 90% cleaner

Tertiary – chemical and physical treatment: disinfection using UV rays or chlorine (Cl), filter; 99.9% more pure after 24 hours

*Press or drying– 4th step? Raw and waste activated sludge, anaerobic decomposition (no oxygen)

Septic Tank- Separates wastewater into layers and treats it before discharging it into a drainfield:

1. Wastewater enters the tank

Wastewater from the house flows into the septic tank through a conveyance line.

2. Solids settle

The wastewater sits in the tank for at least a day, allowing solids to settle to the bottom and form sludge. Grease and lighter solids float to the top and form scum.

3. Wastewater exits the tank

The liquid wastewater, called effluent, exits the tank through a T-shaped outlet and flows into the drainfield.

4. Wastewater is treated in the drainfield

The effluent percolates through the soil in the drainfield, where it is treated and dispersed. The soil acts as a filter to remove harmful substances like bacteria and viruses.

Explain why waterborne pathogens are the number one water pollution problem in developing countries.

because of the widespread lack of proper sanitation and clean water access, which leads to high rates of waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid fever, particularly affecting vulnerable populations like children

Module 1 Vocabulary:

• Community ecology- The study of interactions among species.

• Symbiosis- Two species living in close and long-term association with one another in an ecosystem.

• Biosphere- the region of our planet where life resides.

• Competition- The struggle of individuals, either within or between species, to obtain a shared limiting resource.

• Competitive exclusion principle- The principle stating that two species competing for the same limiting resource cannot coexist.

• Resource partitioning- When two species divide a resource based on differences in their behavior or morphology.

• Predation-  An interaction in which one animal typically kills and consumes another animal.

• Parasitoid- A specialized type of predator that lays eggs inside other organisms—referred to as its host.

• Parasitism- An interaction in which one organism lives on or in another organism, referred to as the host.

• Pathogen- A parasite that causes disease in its host.

• Herbivory- An interaction in which an animal consumes plants or algae.

• Mutualism

• Photosynthesis- The process by which plants and algae use solar energy to convert carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) and water ( H 2 O ) into glucose ( C 6 H 12 O 6 ) and oxygen ( O 2 ) .

• Commensalism- An interaction between two species in which one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor helped.

• Native species- A species that lives in its historical range, typically where it has lived for thousands or millions of years.

• Exotic species- A species living outside its historical range. Also known as alien species.

• Invasive species- A species that spreads rapidly across large areas and causes harm.

Module 2 Vocabulary:

• Biome- the plants and animals that are found in a particular region of the world. 

• Terrestrial biome- A geographic region of land categorized by a particular combination of average annual temperature, annual precipitation, and distinctive plant growth forms.

• Aquatic biome- An aquatic region characterized by a particular combination of salinity, depth, and water flow. 

• Habitat- An area where a particular species lives in nature.

• Tundra- A cold and treeless biome with low-growing vegetation.

• Permafrost- An impermeable, permanently frozen layer of soil.

• Taiga/boreal forest- A forest biome made up primarily of coniferous evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons. Also known as boreal forest.

• Temperate rainforest- A coastal biome typified by moderate temperatures and high precipitation.

• Temperate seasonal (deciduous) forest- A biome with warm summers and cold winters with over 1 m (39 inches) of annual precipitation.

• Shrubland/chaparral- A biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Also known as woodland.

• Temperate grassland- A biome characterized by cold, harsh winters, and hot, dry summers. Also known as cold desert.

• Tropical rainforest- A warm and wet biome found between 20° N and 20° S of the equator, with little seasonal temperature variation and high precipitation.

• Savanna/tropical seasonal forest- A biome marked by warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons. Also known as tropical seasonal forest.

• Hot desert- A biome located at roughly 30° N and 30° S, and characterized by hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse vegetation.

Module 3 Vocabulary:

• Freshwater biomes- Categorized as streams and rivers, lakes and ponds, or freshwater wetlands.

• Littoral zone- The shallow zone of soil and water in lakes and ponds near the shore where most algae and emergent plants such as cattails grow.

• Limnetic zone- A zone of open water in lakes and ponds as deep as the sunlight can penetrate.

• Phytoplankton- Floating algae.

• Profundal zone- A region of water where sunlight does not reach, below the limnetic zone in very deep lakes.

• Benthic zone- The muddy bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean beneath the limnetic and profundal zones.

• Oligotrophic- Describes a lake with a low level of phytoplankton due to low amounts of nutrients in the water.

• Mesotrophic- Describes a lake with a moderate level of fertility.

• Eutrophic- Describes a lake with a high level of fertility.

• Freshwater wetland- An aquatic biome that is submerged or saturated by water for at least part of each year, but shallow enough to support emergent vegetation.

• Estuary- An area along the coast where the fresh water of rivers mixes with salt water from the ocean.

• Salt marsh- Found along the coast in temperate climates, a marsh containing nonwoody emergent vegetation.

• Mangrove swamp- A swamp that occurs along tropical and subtropical coasts, and contains salt-tolerant trees with roots submerged in water.

• Intertidal zone- The narrow band of coastline that exists between the levels of high tide and low tide.

• Coral reef- Represents Earth’s most diverse marine biome, and are found in warm, shallow waters beyond the shoreline in tropical regions.

• Coral bleaching- A phenomenon in which algae inside corals die, causing the corals to turn white.

• Open ocean/pelagic- Deep-ocean water, located away from the shoreline where sunlight can no longer reach the ocean bottom.

• Photic zone- The upper layer of ocean water in the ocean that receives enough sunlight for photosynthesis.

• Aphotic zone- The deeper layer of ocean water that lacks sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.

• Chemosynthesis- A process used by some bacteria to generate energy with methane and hydrogen sulfide.

Module 6 Vocabulary:

• Producers/autotrophs- Plants, algae, and some bacteria that use the Sun’s energy to produce usable forms of energy, such as sugars. Also known as autotrophs.

• Cellular respiration- The process by which cells unlock the energy of chemical compounds.

• Anaerobic respiration- The process by which cells convert glucose into energy in the absence of oxygen.

• Primary productivity- The rate of converting solar energy into organic compounds over a period of time.

• Gross primary productivity (GPP)- The total amount of solar energy that producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time.

• Net primary productivity (NPP)- The energy captured by producers in an ecosystem minus the energy producers respire.

• Biomass- Biological material that has mass.

• Standing crop- The amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a particular time.

• Distillation- A process of desalination in which water is boiled and the resulting steam is captured and condensed to yield pure water.

• Reverse osmosis- A process of desalination in which water is forced through a thin semipermeable membrane at high pressure.

Module 7 Vocabulary:

• Consumer/heterotroph- An organism that is incapable of photosynthesis and must therefore obtain its energy by consuming other organisms. Also known as heterotroph.

• Herbivore/primary consumer- A consumer that eats producers. Also known as primary consumer.

• Carnivore- A consumer that eats other consumers.

• Secondary consumer- A carnivore that eats primary consumers.

• Tertiary consumer- A carnivore that eats secondary consumers.

• Trophic levels- The successive levels of organisms consuming one another.

• Food chain- The sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers.

• Scavenger- An organism that consumes dead animals.

• Detritivore- An organism that specializes in breaking down dead tissues and waste products into smaller particles.

• Decomposers- Fungi and bacteria that complete the breakdown process by converting organic matter into small elements and molecules that can be recycled back into the ecosystem.

• Ecological efficiency- The proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another.

• The 10% Rule- Of the total biomass available at a given trophic level, only about 10 percent can be converted into energy at the next highest trophic level.

• Trophic pyramid- A representation of the distribution of biomass, numbers, or energy among trophic levels.

• Food web- A model of how energy and matter move through two or more interconnected food chains.

Module 8 Vocabulary:

• Genetic diversity- A measure of the genetic variation among individuals in a population.

• Population bottleneck- When a large population declines in number, the amount of genetic diversity carried by the surviving individuals is greatly reduced.

• Species diversity- The number of species in a region or in a particular ecosystem.

• Habitat diversity- The variety of habitats that exist in a given ecosystem.

• Specialists- Species that only live under a narrow range of biotic or abiotic conditions.

• Generalists- Species that can live under a wide range of biotic or abiotic conditions.

• Ecosystem diversity- The variety of ecosystems that exist in a given region.

• Species richness-The number of different species in a given area.

• Species evenness- The relative proportion of individuals within the different species in a given area.

Module 9 Vocabulary:

• Ecosystem services- The processes by which life-supporting resources such as clean water, timber, fisheries, and agricultural crops are produced.

• Provision- A good produced by an ecosystem that humans can use directly.

• Aquaculture- The farming of fish, shellfish, and seaweed.

Module 12 Vocabulary:

• Periodic disruption- Occurring regularly, such as the cycles of day and night or the daily and nightly cycle of the moon’s effects on ocean tides.

• Episodic disruption- Occurring somewhat regularly, such as cycles of high rain and low rain that occur every 5 to 10 years.

• Random disruption- Occurring with no regular pattern such as volcanic eruptions or hurricanes.

• Resistance- In an ecosystem, a measure of how much a disruption can affect flows of energy and matter.

• Resilience- The rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disruption.

• Intermediate disturbance hypothesis- The hypothesis that ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance will favor a higher level of diversity of species than those with high or low disturbance levels.

Module 14 Vocabulary:

• Ecological succession- The predictable replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time.

• Primary succession- Ecological succession occurring on surfaces with bare rock and no soil.

• Pioneer species- In primary succession, species that can survive with little to no soil.

• Secondary succession- The succession of plant life that occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil.

• Climax community- Historically described as the final stage of succession.

• Keystone species- K keystone species A species that is not very abundant but has large effects on an ecological community

• Indicator species- A species that demonstrates a particular characteristic of an ecosystem.

Module 59 Vocabulary:

• Endangered species- Species that are likely to go extinct in the near future.

• Lacey Act- A U.S. act that prohibits interstate shipping of all illegally harvested plants and animals.

• Marine Mammal Protection Act- A 1972 U.S. law that prohibits the killing of all marine mammals in the United States and prohibits the import or export of any marine mammal body parts.

• CITES- A 1973 treaty formed to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals.

CLASSWORK

Class Notes

*Most of the class notes correspond with the reading

• Plant interactions during succession: facilitation vs. interference (i.e. allelopathy) 

  • Facilitation (+): early successional species facilitate (enable) later successional species to grow and prosper

  • Interference (-): early species prevent growth of later species

• Disturbances that cause succession: causes of primary and secondary, biogenic, anthropogenic, chronic patchiness

  • Establishing – primary succession: occurs on “new” land, no seeds in the soil (no seed bank), long time

  • Examples: lava flows, after glaciers retreat

  • Reestablishing – secondary succession: occurs on land that contains seeds (seed bank), quicker

  • Examples: forest fires, flooding, tsunamis, abandoned fields

• Math: gross productivity, net productivity, respiration, trophic level efficiency

• Types of species

  • Exotic (invasive) species

  • Endemic (specialist) species

    • Native to a particular area, but not elsewhere

  • Cosmopolitan (generalist/ubiquitous) species

    • Found in a wide range of areas with suitable habitat

  • Keystone species

• Species interactions

  • +0 Commensalism: benefits one, other not harmed

  • + 0 Saprotrophism: saprotrophs gain nutrients from dead or decaying plants or animals

  • ++ Mutualism: benefits both

  • 0- Amensalism: impedes one’s success without benefit or cost to other

  • + - Competition: two or more organisms fight for the same resources

  • +- Predation: predator/prey

  • + - Parasitism: parasite/host

• Characteristics of pioneer species, middle stages, and climax community

  • Pioneer Species

    • Short

    • Heliophilic

    • Fast growing

    • Short-lived

    • Rapid and widespread seed dispersal

    • Small seeds

    • Low biomass

    • Good competitors

      • Weeds

    • Adaptations for poor soil

    • Make new soil for future species

• Middle Stages of Succession

  • Mix of heliophilic and heliophobic

  • Maximum biodiversity

  • Maximum biomass

  • Maximum amount of nutrient cycling

  • True in all biomes

• Climax Species

  • Large/tall plants

  • Seedlings can grow in shade of trees

  • Slow growing/long life

  • Slower rate of seed dispersal covering less area

  • Persistent

  • High biomass

  • More nutrient uptake than decomposition; uptake occurs rapidly

  • Poorest soil

• Measuring biodiversity: indices, what increases/decreases it

  • a higher value generally indicates greater biodiversity, which increases with a larger number of species (richness) and more even distribution of abundance among those species (evenness)
    
    

AP Environmental Unit 4 Study Guide 

Mod 22 Vocabulary:

• Insolation- Incoming solar radiation, which is the main source of energy on Earth.

• Albedo- The percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface.

• Troposphere- A layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of Earth, extending up to approximately 16 km (10 miles).

• Stratosphere- The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere, extending roughly 16 to 50 km (10–31 miles) above the surface of Earth.

• Ozone- A pale blue gas composed of molecules made up of three oxygen atoms ( O 3 ). 

• Mesosphere- The layer of the atmosphere above the stratosphere, extending roughly 50 to 85 km (31–53 miles) above the surface of Earth. 

• Thermosphere- The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere, extending 85 to 600 km (53–375 miles) above the surface of Earth.

• Exosphere- The outermost layer of the atmosphere which extends from 600 to 10,000 km (375–6,200 miles) above the surface of Earth.

• Saturation point- The maximum amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature.

• Adiabatic cooling- The cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands.

• Adiabatic heating- The heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume.

• Latent heat release- The release of energy when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into liquid water.

• Atmospheric convection current- Global patterns of air movement that are initiated by the unequal heating of Earth.

• Hadley cell- A convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30° N and 30° S

• Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)- The latitude that receives the most intense sunlight, which causes the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells to converge.

• Polar cell- A convection current in the atmosphere, formed by air that rises at 60° N and 60° S and sinks at the poles, 90° N and 90° S

Mod 23 Vocabulary: 

• Gyre- A large-scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

• Upwelling- The upward movement of ocean water toward the surface as a result of diverging currents.

• Thermohaline circulation- An oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water.

• Rain shadow- A region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side.

• El Niño- Southern Oscillation ENSO- A reversal of wind and water currents in the South Pacific.

• La Niña- Following an El Niño event, trade winds in the South Pacific reverse strongly, causing regions that were hot and dry to become cooler and wetter.

Module 42 Vocabulary:

• Air pollution- The introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high enough to harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to alter ecosystems.

• Sulfur dioxide- A corrosive gas that comes primarily from combustion of fuels such as coal and oil, including diesel fuel from trucks.

• Haze- Reduced visibility.

• Photochemical oxidant- A class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.

• Lead- A trace metal that occurs naturally in rocks and soils, is present in small concentrations in coal and oil and is a neurotoxin.

• Hydrocarbons- Pollutant compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, such as gasoline and other fossil fuels, lighter fluid, dry-cleaning fluid, oil-based paints, and perfumes.

Module 44 Vocabulary:

• Indoor air pollutants- Compounds that adversely affect the quality of air in buildings and structures.

• Asbestos- A long, thin, fibrous silicate mineral with insulating properties, which can cause cancer when inhaled.

• Radon-222- A radioactive gas that occurs naturally from the decay of uranium and is an indoor air pollutant.

• Sick building syndrome- A buildup of toxic pollutants in weatherized spaces, such as newer buildings in the developed world. 

Module 58 Vocabulary:

• Kyoto Protocol- An international agreement that sets a goal for global emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries to be reduced by 5.2 percent below their 1990 levels by 2012.

• Paris Climate Agreement (Paris Climate Accord)- A pledge by 196 countries to keep global warming less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels. 

Module 43 Vocabulary:

• Formaldehyde- A naturally occurring compound that is used as a preservative and as an adhesive in plywood and carpeting.

• Thermal inversion- An atmospheric condition in which a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below.

Module 55 Vocabulary: 

• Chlorofluorocarbons- Chemical that can be used for cooling refrigerators and air conditioners.

• Montreal Protocol- A commitment by 24 nations to reduce CFC production by 50 percent by the year 2000.

Class Notes: 

1. Atmospheric Composition

   1. Gas composition

   2. Layers of the atmosphere

      1. Names and major characteristics

      2. Changes in temperature

   3. Global circulation patterns

      1. Wind patterns at different latitudes

      2. Coriolis Effect

   4. Seasons: what causes them?

   5. Weather

      1. Low vs. High pressure systems

      2. Microclimates

      3. Albedo

   6. El Niño conditions

      1. Changes in ocean and air currents

      2. La Niña

2. Air Pollutants

   1. 6 Criteria Air Pollutants

      1. Carbon Oxides

      2. Sulfur Oxides

      3. Nitrogen Oxides

      4. Particulates

      5. Heavy Metals

      6. Tropospheric Ozone (VOCs)

   2. Primary vs. Secondary Pollutants

   3. Thermal Inversion

   4. Air Pollution Control

      1. Clean Air Act

      2. Scrubbers & Electrostatic Precipitators

      3. Catalytic Converters/E-Check

      4. Stockholm Convention

3. Climate Change

   1. Major anthropogenic and natural greenhouse gases

   2. Steps of climate change

   3. Effects of climate change

   4. Kyoto Protocol/Paris Climate Agreement

4. Ozone Depletion

   1. Formation/decomposition of ozone

   2. Which anthropogenic pollutant alters ozone?  How?

   3. Where is the ozone layer thinnest? When?

   4. Montreal Protocol

5. Acid Deposition

   1. Formation: pollutants that cause it

   2. Effects

CLASSWORK

Class Notes

*Most of the class notes correspond with the reading

Class Notes

Soil:

• Gravel, sand, silt, clay: order of settling, qualities of each

  • Clay 

    • fine-grained minerals resulting from chemical weathering of dark sedimentary rocks (shale, mudstone) and some metamorphic rocks (slate)

    • responsible for turbidity

• Silt 

  • Grains resulting from the chemical and physical weathering of quartz and feldspars

  • Can be carried long distances by wind or water, thus contributing to turbidity

• Sand 

  • Most common component is silica, often in the form of quartz

  • Variable rocks and minerals depending on location

  • Transported by wind and water and deposited on beaches, dunes, and sand bars

Bottom to top in the order of sand first, then silt, and clay last 

• Chemical and physical soil tests

  • A chemical test will show imbalances in major nutrients as well as the presence of certain chemicals, while a physical test will help you identify the type of soil composition you have

  • Chemical test example: pH test- how acidic the soil is 

  • Physical test example: settling tube test- find out soil type 

• Soil Triangle

  • The soil texture triangle is a tool used by soil scientists. It compares the composition of particles to determine soil type.

• Soil conservation methods (also in reading)

  • Crop rotation: change crops on same field each year; reduces pests and disease

  • Strip cropping: alternates types of crops in each row

  • No-till agriculture: leaves land undisturbed in winter; leave behind residue of previous crops for nutrients and to prevent erosion

  • Contour plowing: plowing matches shape of the land

  • Terracing: leveling of steep slopes

Plate Tectonics:

• Layers of the earth: chemical and physical

  • Chemical 

1. Crust 

2. Mantle

3. Core 

• Physical 

1. Lithosphere 

2. Asthenosphere

3. Mesophoshephere 

4. Outer core

5. Inner core 

Mining:

• Mining resources

  • Minerals found at or near the Earth’s surface

    • Silicates (SiO2) are most abundant

  • Extracted, then processed into an affordable, usable form

• Minerals are NONRENEWABLE

  • Why mining uses so much technology

  • Why they are so expensive

• Dramatic effects on the environment no matter what methods are used

• Surface Mining- removes shallow deposits 

  • Types

1. Open Pit Mining: Sand, Gravel, and some ores 

2. Area strip mining: shallow coal deposits 

• Bulldozers remove soil,leaving behind spoil bank 

3. Contour strip mining: Hilly/mountains areas 

• Used for coal veins 

• Cut away at the hillside 

4. Mountaintop Removal: cut away the peak of mountains to make them more plateau- like and exposed coal 

• Environmental Pros & Cons

  • Cons 

    • Habitat loss, deforestation, increased soil erosion

    • Overburden/tailings wash away into rivers/streams

 runoff, collapse

• Pros 

  • Lower environmental impact and increased safety

• Economic Pros & Cons

  • Cons 

    • Environmental issues from mining can impact human health and property, which can result in unexpected economic costs. 

  • Pros 

    •  less expensive than underground mining

    • requires fewer workers and less equipment

    • extract larger quantities of minerals at once

• Subsurface Mining: Removes deep deposit 

  • Take out soil, hard rock, excavating to create mine shafts or tunnels. 

  • Not as many environmental dangers, but many safety issues

    • Mine collapse, Gas pockets, mine fires, health 

  • Environmental Pros & Cons

    • Pros

      • Lower environmental impact

      • Topsoil and vegetation survival

    • Cons

      • Hazardous conditions

      • Water contamination

      • Waste disposal

      • Land subsidence

      • Soil erosion

      • Biodiversity decrease

  • Economic Pros & Cons

    • Pros 

      • More profitable over time 

    • Cons 

      • High initial cost 

      • Operational cost 

• Mining laws & regulations

  • General Mining Law of 1872

    • Authorizes prospecting of precious minerals (gold, silver, platinum) on federal land

    • Due to no rules during California Gold Rush 1849

  • Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act- 1977

    • Regulates environmental effects of mining

    • Standards for active coal mines

    • Reclamation (clean up) of abandoned mines