Aims and Results of Hitler’s Political Policies:

Aims and Results of Hitler’s Political Policies:

• Eliminate opposition 

• Create a one party state 

• Deconstruct democracy 

• SS

The SS was initially founded in 1925 as a small bodyguard unit for Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders. It started with just a few dozen men, but it expanded into one of the most important and terrifying forces in Nazi Germany.

The SS was responsible for a wide range of activities, including police work, military operations, and the execution of Nazi policies — especially those related to the persecution of Jews, ethnic minorities, and political enemies. Meant to be more disciplined and elite than SA.

It was the SS that had carried out the Night of the Long Knives. Following this event, the role of the SS expanded. By 1936, it controlled the entire police system. It aimed to eliminate all enemies of the Regime, whether political or racial and was in charge of the concentration camps. It also established a vast economic empire

By 1939 there were 240,000 members organized into various divisions; the Death’s Head Formations administered the concentration camps and formed Panzer units; the Waffen SS was mainly a military organization.

The Sicherheitsdienst (SD) was the intelligence gathering agency of the SS. it was responsible for the security of Hitler and other top Nazis

• Gestapo 

The Gestapo or Geheime Staatspolizei was a relatively small organisation with only 20,000 officers in 1939. However, it managed to create an atmosphere of fear and suspicion within the German population by using Nazi informers in the general population to gain information. Each ‘block warden’’ was in control of a block or unit of a town and would visit every home in their area each week collecting donations and checking up on people. In addition, many of the public voluntarily renounce their neighbours, though this was probably inspired more by personal than political reasons. In fact, there were so many denunciations that the Gestapo were unable to investigate them all and so arrests and custody became increasingly random.

• SA

The SA (Sturmabteilung) or stormtroopers was a militant wing of the Nazi Party, founded in 1921 by Ernst Röhm. Its original purpose was to provide protection for Nazi meetings and rallies and to intimidate political opponents, especially Communists and Socialists.

The SA members were known for their distinctive brown uniforms, which earned them the nickname Brownshirts. Brownshirts - distinct brown uniforms. Germany changed the color of its uniforms after WW1 as it went under a process of denazification and wearing the brownshirts is illegal today. 

• Stahlhelm

The Stahlhelm (Steel Helmet) was a German nationalist and paramilitary organization founded in 1918 by former soldiers after World War I. It was deeply anti-republican, nationalist, and anti-communist, aiming to defend the honor of German veterans and oppose the Weimar Republic. The group participated in political violence and street battles, aligning with other right-wing factions. In 1931, it formed an alliance with the Nazi Party, and by 1933, after Hitler’s rise to power, the Stahlhelm was absorbed into the Nazi regime, losing its independence and merging into Nazi paramilitary structures like the SA and SS.

• Gleichschaltung 

January 1933 - August 1934

The term is not directly translated to English. The nearest word is ‘coordination’, but Tim Woffenden says that it is not clear or sinister enough to describe the policy and a better way to understand it is ‘Nazification’. When Hitler was made chancellor on 30th Jan 1933, it did not seem as though he was in full control of Germany. Conservatives and the government thought that they could limit his freedom of action because he didn’t have a majority in the Cabinet (senior ministers), HOWEVER, within 1½ years he had established a dictatorship in August 1934. It is often styled a legal revolution because Hitler did not want to use any illegal means that would undermine his status and lose the loyalty the army and forces. He did use many illegal methods, but he was always able to justify them on the basis of a law. Hitler strove to impose Nazi Party’s parties control over political and social institutions. The priority was to secure political supremacy. Nazi flag with swastika was officially adopted, which was earlier the party banner. It is now banned.

• Reichstag Fire Decree

He called for immediate elections. Hitler won over the people immediately through grand parades. On 31st Jan, he called for a National Uprising, national unity to tackle unemployment and agricultural distress. Army was promised restoration of conscription. Promises to destroy Marxism and the ToV. 

Hermann Goring controlled the Prussian administration and purged political chiefs who opposed Nazism. On Feb 17th, he issued a ‘shooting decree’, instructing police to take strenuous measures against communists. SS, SA, Stahlhelm were drafted into the police force and issued firearms. Meetings of rival parties were broken up, newspapers closed down. At first, left was the target but they soon turned to the Centre Party. Former leader Bruning protested and was attacked. KPD and SPD had a bitter rivalry for industrial working classes’ vote and SPD refused to work with them. However, KPD believed that Hitler, ‘the Austrian corporal’ wouldn’t last long. 

Reichstag Fire on 27 Feb - a young communist Marinus van der Lubbe was charged with a confession. He had a history of arson. Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to passed the ‘Reich Decree for the Protection of People and State’ which suspended civil liberties such as free press and assembly, and allowed the government to intercept communications. Passed under Article 48 (legal), Renewed for the duration of Hitler’s rule. On March 5th, the election was under a terrifying atmosphere. SS and SA everywhere and no sign of opposition. However, they got only 43.9% of the vote. 

• Enabling Act

Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich passed on March 23, 1933. Hitler decided to introduce an Enabling act that would allow him to make laws without the approval of the Reichstag, and without reference to the President, for a period of four years. However, as this was a change in the constitution, it needed a two-thirds majority to get it passed. The Communist delegates had already been excluded following the Reichstag Fire and Hitler had the support of the DNVP. He just needed the support of the Centre Party, and this he secured by giving them the reassurance that he would not use his powers without first consulting the President. Only the SDP voted against the Act. Thus Hitler how had full executive and legislative powers. It was renewed every 4 years until the end of his reign. In a speech before the vote, he said “The Government will make use of these powers only insofar as they are essential for carrying out vitally necessary measures… The rights of the Reichstag will not be touched.” He claimed that it was necessary to SAVE the Reich.

After 1933, there was no constitution in Germany. Hitler’s word was law. There were no longer legal safeguards to protect individual citizens and judges were no longer an independent force; they were expected to make judgements in line with Nazi beliefs and aims. Individuals could be arrested and tried without trial; new courts and police organisations were introduced to ensure that opponents to the regime were swiftly dealt with. In particular, the SS, with its secret police offshooting the Gestapo, became a powerful tool of control and of terror under Heinrich Himmler.

• Dualism 

Under Hitler’s rule, the Nazi state was characterized by a dual system of governance, where traditional government ministries operated alongside newly created Nazi institutions. These parallel structures often had overlapping responsibilities, such as the Ministry of the Interior and the SS both dealing with internal security. Hitler allowed this confusion to persist because it created competition among officials, each trying to prove their loyalty by "working towards the Führer." This deliberate duplication of authority helped Hitler centralize power, as it prevented any single institution from becoming too powerful and made all officials dependent on his personal favor and approval

• Civil Servants 

The civil service had remained a conservative force within the Weimar government and it had opposed the more liberal, democratic ideas of the Republic. Many thus welcomed the arrival of the Nazis seeing this as a return to the authoritarian rule of the Kaiser. However, the Nazis had no intention of being constrained by civil service officials. Dualism - Many local officials were replaced by Nazi officials and Party officials were placed in government offices to ensure that the others followed Nazi orders. The success of Gleischchaltung within the legal system can be seen by the oath taken at a mass meeting held in front of the Supreme Court building in Leipzig in October 1933; ten thousand lawyers gave the Nazi salute and publicly swore to ‘strive as German jurists to follow the course of our Fuhrer to the end of our days’.

• 1934 – The “Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich”

There were 39 Germanic states in 1871 “Germany Federation” unified by the Kaiser and “free states” after WW1. There was a tradition of independence amongst the various states of Germany. Indeed, the Weimar constitution had agreed on a federal structure with 17 Länder in which a large number of powers were devolved to regional governments. For Hitler, who wanted a strong unified Germany, this situation had to change. Thus, several laws were passed to centralise power:

• 31 March 1933: a law dissolved the regional parliaments and replaced them with Nazi dominated assemblies

• 7 April 1933: Reich Governors were created to oversee the government of each state

• 30 January 1934: regional parliaments were abolished; all state governments were formally subordinated to the central government.

The Nazi Party now used Nazi leaders called Gauleiters to control local government

• One party state 

Hitler’s aim was a one-party state; political parties clearly could not be allowed to continue. In the course of the spring and summer of 1933, these were either outlawed, or they dissolved themselves:

The power of the Communists had effectively been destroyed since the Reichstag Fire. The Social Democrats had been subjected to increasing repression and attacks by the SA since January 1933 and were now officially banned, 22 June following the attack on Trade Unionists. Brutal acts of repression were carried out against Social Democrats all over Germany. The other major parties then agreed to dissolve themselves in late June. The Catholic Centre Party followed on 5 July.

The ‘Law Against the Formation of New Parties’, 14 July 1933 formally established a one-party state. The sole function of the Reichstag was now just to approve the decisions of the Nazi government. Justification was that Germany needed unity and recovery from Weimar and multiple parties caused instability, Nazi only party that represented the true will of the people.

• Trade Unions 

Hitler’s policy of Gleichschaltung also meant that powerful rival organisations had to be eliminated. On 1st May, which is the traditional day for international socialist Labour, the Nazis declared a national holiday, thus giving the impression to workers that they were prepared to accept and co-operate with the trade-unions. However, the Nazis used the holiday to occupy Trade Union premises, confiscate funds and arrest leaders. As historian Richard Evans writes, ‘the once- powerful German trade union movement had disappeared almost without trace overnight’. In the place of independent Trade Unions, the German Labour Front (DAF) under Robert Ley was set up, claiming to represent the interests of all Germany workers. However, this was more of an instrument of control, and rights such as negotiating wages and conditions of work were removed 

• Night of Long Knives 

The Night of the Long Knives is often seen as the turning point for Hitler's rule; it got rid of any opponents and secured the support of the army which was key for Hitler if he was to carry out his plans for expansion.

The SA had played a key role in eliminating opponents of the Nazi party and it had grown in numbers to around 3 million by early 1934. Hitler became concerned that he could no longer control its activities. In addition, the views of its leader, Ernst Röhm, regarding the future direction of the Nazi Party clashed with his own and would lose Hitler the support of the conservative elites.

When Röhm’s opponents fabricated evidence of a SA plot against the government, Hitler instigated the Night of the Long Knives. On 30 June 1934 Röhm and other key members of the SA were murdered by the loyal SS. It was also the chance to settle old scores; von Schleicher and Strasser who had both plotted against Hitler in 1932 were killed; von Papen was put under house arrest.

• Church 

Nazi ideology posed fundamental challenges to the beliefs of Christianity. However, initially Hitler attempted to win over the support of the Protestant and Catholic Churches by indicating that they could be accommodated within the Nazi State. Key in this process was the Concordat that was signed between the Papacy and the regime and which was an attempt to safeguard the position of the Church under the Nazis. In this agreement the Nazis guaranteed the Catholic Church religious freedom and full control over its own education and its property and legal rights. The papacy in return said that they would not interfere in politics and would give diplomatic recognition to the Nazi government.

The Nazi government had no intention of keeping to this agreement; however, it served the purpose of reassuring the Church while the dictatorship was being established.

Historians and views

• Norman Rich - traditional view; it all worked 

• Momsen - challenged the traditional view, “lazy dictator” 

• Kershaw - deliberate policy of divide and rule