Memory

  • definition- learning that persists overtime; process by which info is encoded, stored, and retrieved

  • memory model 1

    • encoding- getting information into our memories

    • storage- retaining information for future use

    • retrieval-revering stored information

      • recall- without cues or prompts

      • recognition- identifying after encountering it again

  • memory model 2

    • sensory

    • short-term/working memory

    • long-term

  • sensory input → sensory memory → short-term memory (STM) → long-term memory (LTM)

  • each stage varies in purpose, duration, and capacity

Sensory memory

  • information enters through 5 senses

  • shortest memory- remains only long enough for relevant pieces to be transferred to the next memory stage

    • 1-2 seconds long

  • remaining sensory information degrades to make room for newer stimuli

  • iconic visual memory lasts up to 1/2 of a second

  • echoic (auditory) memory can last for up to 2-4 seconds

Short-term memory (working memory)

  • active processing and temporary storage

  • sends and receives information to and from the long-term memory

  • limited capacity- (7+/-2)

    • can be extended through chunking (grouping pieces of information together)

Long-term memory

  • receives and stores information from short-term memory

    • starts following 30 seconds

  • duration- relatively permanent

  • capacity- relatively unlimited

Nature of Long-term memory

  • stores information from long periods of time

  • capacity is virtually limitless

  • duration is relatively predominant

  • divided into various memory types

    • explicit

    • implicit

Types of Long-term memory

  • explicit- declarative memory- conscious, easily described memories

    • semantic- fact/general knowledge

    • episodic- autobiographical events and contexts

  • implicit- non-declarative memory- without conscious recall

    • procedural- how to do certain things

    • classically condition- things have been associated together; and remember through association

    • priming- predisposed to remember; retrieval facilitated by earlier exposure

  • people with dementia/Alzheimer’s disease see reduction in explicit memory greater than implicit memory

Nature of Long-term memory

  • organization- the use of hierarchies/categories/subsets

  • rehearsal- elaborating rehearsal (deeper processing, focus on understanding, not memorizing)

  • retrieval- the use of cues

Improving long-term memory

  • encoding specificity- using the memory in the same environmental context in which it was learned

  • state-dependent retrieval- using the memory in the same internal state in which it was learned

  • mnemonic- strategy device using familiar information during encoding to assist recall

    • acronyms- OIL RIG, PEMDAS, etc

    • method of loci/memory palace

  • some memory organization and filing is done automatically while you sleep or nap

  • people who rest and close their eyes for as little as 10 minutes show greater memory for details of a story they’ve just heard

Forgetting

  • the inability to remember information that was previously available

  • Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve

    • immediate recall- 100%

    • one hour- 44%

    • one day- 35%

    • one week- 21%

  • how can forgetting be adaptable?

  • decay theory- “use it or lose it”; memory is stored in the form of connections between neurons

  • interference theory- competing memories

    • retroactive interference- new information makes you forget old information

    • proactive interference- old information interferes with your ability to remember new information

  • motivated forgetting theory- people forget unpleasant or anxiety-producing information either consciously or unconsciously (Freud)

  • retrieval failure theory- it’s there, but i’s just not available

    • tip of the tongue phenomenon- the information has been encoded but temporarily can’t be retrieved

    • causes of interference, faulty cues, and emotional arousal

  • misinformation effect- result from misleading information being presented after an event

    • alters the memories of an event

  • serial position effect

    • primacy- information at the beginning of a list is easier to recall

    • recency- information at the end of the list (most recent exposure) is easier to recall

      • information in the middle seems to get lost

  • factors that influence forgetting

    • source amnesia- forgetting the origin of a previously stored memory

    • spacing of practice- distributed practice- breaking study or practice into several short sessions over time (aka spaced repetition); massed practice- time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (aka cramming)

  • culture- in cultures wit strong oral traditions, children have better memories for information in stories

  • emotional arousal can sometimes lead to memory enhancement

    • flashbulb memories- vivid, detailed and near-permanent memories of emotionally significant memories or events; can stem from positive or negative experiences

  • traumatic brain injury- main cause of neurological disorders in those 15-25 years old

  • amnesia- a generalized difficulty retrieving more widespread and general old memories or forming new ones

    • retrograde- difficulty retrieving old memories (consolidation failure)

    • anterograde- difficulty in forming new memories

  • Alzheimer’s disease- a progressive mental deterioration that occurs most commonly in old age

    • symptoms- disturbances in memory, explicit or implicit memory, especially affects explicit/declarative memory, including facts and information

  • memory distortion- our need for logic and consistency and for the sake of efficiency; misinformation effect