Anglo-Saxon and Medieval English Literature Study Guide
Historical Context and the Anglo-Saxon Conquest
In ancient times, the northern regions of Europe were inhabited by three distinct tribes known as the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. During the century, these groups embarked on a conquest of Britain, where they eventually settled. The native inhabitants of the island were driven into the remote mountains of Wales and Scotland as the Germanic invaders divided the territory among themselves. The Angles established themselves in the east midland, founding the kingdom of the East Angles. The Saxons occupied the southern portion of the island, creating several small kingdoms, including Wessex, Essex, and Sussex. The Jutes settled in the southeastern corner of Britain. Over time, seven distinct kingdoms emerged on the island. By the century, these small kingdoms were consolidated into a single united entity known as England. The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes are traditionally recognized as the first Englishmen, and the language they spoke, Old English, serves as the primary foundation for English language and literature. The history of English literature is considered to have begun with this Anglo-Saxon settlement.
Characteristics of Anglo-Saxon and Old English Literature
Old English literature was characterized almost exclusively by verse and was primarily an oral tradition. These works were passed down through generations by word of mouth, and in most instances, the original creators remain unknown. It was only long after their initial composition that these poems were documented in written form. Literature from this period is generally divided into two categories: pagan poetry and religious poetry. Pagan poetry is most famously represented by the epic Beowulf, while religious poetry is exemplified by the works of authors such as Caedmon and Cynewulf. In the century, Anglo-Saxon prose began to appear, with the most notable writers being the Venerable Bede and Alfred the Great.
The Epic Poem Beowulf and Its Narrative
Beowulf stands as the oldest poem in the English language and is regarded as the most significant specimen of Anglo-Saxon literature. It is also the oldest surviving epic in English, consisting of more than lines. Having been transmitted orally for hundreds of years, it was finally committed to writing in either the century or at the end of the century. the narrative is rooted in the folk legends of primitive northern tribes. The story begins with Hrothgar, the King of the Danes, who constructed a magnificent mead-hall called Heorot near the sea. While it was the most splendid hall in the world where the king and his thanes feasted, a monster named Grendel began a reign of terror. Grendel would break into the hall at night, killing sleeping warriors and devouring them in his underwater lair. These raids continued for winters, leaving the hall deserted as no weapon could harm the creature.
Beowulf, the nephew of King Hygelac of the Geats in Juteland, Denmark, travels to help Hrothgar with soldiers. In a hand-to-hand combat at Heorot, Beowulf wrenches off Grendel's arm, leading to the monster's death in its den. However, Grendel's mother seeks revenge, killing the king's dearest friend. Beowulf pursues her into her lair and slays her using a sword wrought by giants that he finds hanging on the wall. He returns triumphantly with Grendel's head. After inheriting the crown from his uncle, Beowulf reigns for years. His reign ends when a fire-spewing dragon, which had guarded a golden cup in a mountain cave for years, begins devastating the land after the cup is stolen. The aged Beowulf, accompanied by chosen warriors, fights the dragon. Although the dragon is killed, Beowulf is mortally wounded and dies a heroic death, followed by a grand funeral.
Artistic and Formal Features of Beowulf
Beowulf is primarily a pagan poem, though it contains a Christian flavor added by the monastery scribes who eventually recorded it. It provides a comprehensive depiction of tribal society, including its social conditions and customs, making it a vital resource for studying primitive European society. Formally, the poem is noted for its use of strong stresses and a predominance of consonants. Each line is split into two halves, with each half containing two heavy stresses. Alliteration is a central feature, with three stressed syllables in each line typically being alliterative to provide emphasis. The poem also employs frequent understatements and metaphors, specifically "kennings." Examples include referring to the sea as the "whale-road" or "swan-road," soldiers as "shield-men," chieftains as "treasure-keepers," the human body as a "bone-house," God as the "wonder-wielder," and the monster as a "soul-destroyer."
Religious Poetry of Caedmon and Cynewulf
Caedmon, who lived from to , is the first known religious poet in England and is often called the Father of English songs. His life is detailed in Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica. Originally a humble cattle-herder for an abbey, Caedmon fled a New Year's Eve feast because he could not sing. In a dream, a mysterious voice commanded him to sing of creation, resulting in his first poem, The Hymn of Praise. He later used biblical material to compose many other works. Cynewulf, active in the early century, is considered the greatest Anglo-Saxon poet after the anonymous author of Beowulf. Likely a scholar or ecclesiastic, his name was unknown until . He produced four major poems: Christ, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, and Elene. His most characteristic work, Christ, is a didactic poem in three parts covering the Nativity, the Ascension, and Doomsday, drawing from church liturgy and the homilies of Gregory the Great.
Development of Old English Prose
Prose literature in the Anglo-Saxon period emerged later than poetry, appearing in the century. The three most famous prose writers were the Venerable Bede, Alfred the Great, and Aelfric. The Venerable Bede (–) is regarded as the father of English learning and the first scholar in English literature. He wrote over works in Latin, covering all contemporary human knowledge. His most vital work is The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, which records the spread of religion in England, historical events, and mythological legends. Alfred the Great (–), King of Wessex, promoted education and founded colleges. He translated significant Latin works into English, most notably The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which serves as a record of the period's main events and is considered the best monument of Old English prose. Aelfric (–), a clergyman, wrote numerous religious works in Greek and Latin, introducing a musical and clearer prose style that elevated the quality of Old English prose.
The Norman Conquest and Feudal Social Structure
The Normans were originally Scandinavians who settled in Normandy, France, in the century, adopting the French language and Christianity. In , William the Great, Duke of Normandy, defeated the English army at the Battle of Hastings and became King of England. This conquest led to the establishment of the feudal system, a social structure comparable to a pyramid: King William sat at the top, followed by noblemen like barons and knights. Below them were the peasants, who became serfs. Class divisions were sharp, and the church and court collaborated to maintain control. Heavy taxes and continuous warfare led to social unrest, culminating in the peasant uprising of led by Wat Tyler and John Ball. While the uprising failed, it significantly challenged the ruling class. The Normans introduced chivalry into England, emphasizing knightly codes and reverence for women and the Virgin Mary. During this time, three languages coexisted: the Normans spoke French, scholars used Latin, and the lower classes spoke English.
The Medieval Romance and Its Cycles
The romance was the dominant literary form in feudal England between and . It was a lengthy composition in prose or verse focused on the adventures of a noble knight. Key characteristics of the romance include a lack of realism, the idealization of virtues, the exaggeration of vices, and an emphasis on perilous adventures and devotion to a fair lady. Romances were written primarily for the upper class and categorized into three main cycles: the Matter of France (concerning Charlemagne and works like La Chanson de Roland), the Matter of Rome (concerning Alexander the Great and the Trojan War), and the Matter of Britain (concerning King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table). The most celebrated Arthurian romance is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a verse-romance of lines derived from Celtic legends.
The Narrative of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
During a New Year's Eve feast, a giant Green Knight challenges King Arthur's court to a beheading game. Sir Gawain accepts, decapitating the knight with a battle-axe. The Green Knight survives the blow, picks up his head, and instructs Gawain to meet him in a year at the Green Chapel. A year later, Gawain seeks the chapel and finds refuge in a castle. The host and Gawain make a compact to exchange what they gain each day. For two days, Gawain is tempted by the hostess but only receives kisses, which he dutifully returns to the host. On the third day, the hostess gives him a magic green girdle that supposedly protects the wearer from injury. Gawain keeps the girdle secret. At the Green Chapel, the Green Knight reveals himself as the host. He feints two blows but slightly wounds Gawain on the third for concealing the girdle. Gawain is ashamed but forgiven, and King Arthur later commands all his knights to wear a green girdle as a reminder of the lesson. The poem is written in stanzas that combine meter, alliteration, and a rhymed refrain.
The Age of Chaucer and William Langland
The century is known as the Age of Chaucer, a period featuring five major writers: William Langland, Wycliffe, Gower, Mandeville, and Geoffrey Chaucer. William Langland (–) is famous for the alliterative poem Piers Plowman, which exists in three revised texts. The poem is a series of dream visions that satirize feudal society. In one dream, the author sees a field of people where the rich and idlers waste the fruit of the workers' labor. He uses a fable about rats debating how to handle a court cat to expose the ruling class. Another allegory involves Lady Bribery, the incarnation of corruption, who is opposed by Conscience. Conscience refuses to marry her, exposing how she corrupts judges and oppresses the poor. The poem eventually introduces the hero, Piers the plowman, a simple peasant who teaches that the path to Truth is through honest labor. While Langland accepted the feudal social order, the poem was influential in arousing revolutionary sentiment before the uprising.
Geoffrey Chaucer and The Canterbury Tales
Geoffrey Chaucer (–, often called the father of English poetry and fiction, had a life divided into three periods: French influence, Italian influence, and the final English period. His masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, consists of a prologue and tales. In the prologue, Chaucer describes pilgrims from all social classes (except royalty and the poorest peasants) meeting at the Tabard Inn in Southwark. To pass the time on their journey to Canterbury, each pilgrim was meant to tell four stories (two going, two returning), though only were completed. The pilgrims include a Knight, a Wife of Bath, a Monk, a Miller, and an Oxford scholar. The Wife of Bath is particularly notable as a talkative cloth-factory owner who has had five husbands and uses her wit to dominate her domestic life. Chaucer is credited with introducing the heroic couplet (rhyming couplets of iambic pentameter) and using the East Midland dialect, which became the foundation of modern English.
Representative Stories within The Canterbury Tales
Chaucer's tales are tailored to the characters of the tellers. The Knight's Tale follows Palamon and Arcite, two cousins who fall in love with Emily; Arcite wins a tournament but dies, allowing Palamon to marry her. The Pardoner's Tale is a moralizing story of three rioters who seek to kill Death but find a heap of gold instead. Out of greed, they kill each other, thereby finding Death. The Merchant's Tale tells of an elderly blind baron, January, and his young wife, May; when January regains his sight and sees May with a lover in a tree, he is convinced by May that his eyes deceived him. Chaucer's work is celebrated for its realism and humanism, as he affirms the right to pursue earthly happiness and satirizes social evils, despite his own occasional medieval prejudices or use of rough humor.
Literature in the 15th Century and Thomas Malory
The century is often called the "barren age" of English literature due to the disruption of continuous wars, such as the Wars of the Roses. However, popular literature like ballads flourished. Ballads were anonymous stories in verse, often transmitted orally, with the most famous cycle focusing on Robin Hood, a legendary outlaw who robbed the rich to help the poor. The only major prose writer of this century was Thomas Malory (–), who wrote Le Morte d'Arthur while in prison. The book chronicles the life and death of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It details the glory of the kingdom followed by its collapse due to the affair between Launcelot and Queen Guinevere and the treachery of Sir Mordred. Written as the feudal order was ending and chivalry was being replaced by a new aristocratic code, the book remains a primary source for Arthurian legends in English literature.