Notes: Types of Nonverbal Communication

Kinesics

  • Kinesics is the study of body movements as a form of nonverbal communication, including hand/arm movements, facial expressions, posture, and overall body orientation. Nonverbal signals often interact with verbal messages, repeating, modifying, or contradicting them.

Gestures

  • Three main types of gestures: adaptors, emblems, and illustrators (Andersen, 1999).

Adaptors

  • Touching behaviors signaling internal states such as arousal or anxiety. Often linked to unease or a sense of losing control.
  • Subtypes:
    • Self-adaptors: directed at the self (e.g., scratching, hair-twirling, finger/toe fidgeting). Common in classrooms, meetings, or while waiting; can signal uneasiness.
    • Object adaptors: manipulating objects (e.g., paper clips, markers, notes) to manage anxiety or keep busy; might signal boredom when used with objects (e.g., straw, bottle label).
    • Other-directed adaptors: grooming or touching others; less common in public speaking due to audience distance (e.g., picking lint off someone’s clothing).
  • Smartphone fiddling has become a contemporary object adaptor to ease anxiety.
  • In public speaking, adaptors are often self- or object-focused and may reveal unspoken emotional states.

Emblems

  • Emblems are gestures with specific, culturally agreed meanings and can be still or in motion. They are not part of a formal sign system like ASL.
  • Examples:
    • Hitchhiker’s thumbs-up, OK sign (thumb and index finger forming a circle), raised middle finger.
    • In the U.S., thumbs-up can mean "okay" or indicate a ride request.
    • V-sign (index and middle finger) with palm in = insult in Britain; origin tied to archers who could still shoot after their two fingers were cut (Pease & Pease, 2004).
  • Historical/origin notes show how emblems originate and evolve within cultures.

Illustrators

  • Illustrators are gestures that accompany and illustrate the verbal message (e.g., indicating the size/shape of an object). They do not carry standalone meaning and lack fixed definitions.
  • They tend to be subconscious and vary in intensity/frequency by context.
  • Illustrators often remain natural and automatic, such as gesturing while talking on the phone even when the other person cannot see.

Head Movements and Posture

  • Head movements and posture indicate attention, interest, and stance.
  • Head movements:
    • Head nods signal acknowledgement; often serve as an abbreviated form of a bow in many cultures.
    • Universal no-signal: head shaking from side to side begins at birth and signals rejection or negation (e.g., refusing a spoon-feed).
    • Head position indicates attitude:
    • Head up = engaged/neutral.
    • Head tilt = interest; a submissive cue that can increase perceived trust.
    • Head down = negative or aggressive attitude (Pease & Pease, 2004).
  • Postures (four general human postures: standing, sitting, squatting, lying down) have numerous variations and interact with other cues to convey meaning.
    • Standing: hands on hips = perceive self as bigger; assertiveness; elbows pointed outward to block others (dominance/“ready for action”).
    • Sitting: leaning back = informality/indifference; straddling a chair = dominance but can signal insecurity; leaning forward = interest/attentiveness (Pease & Pease, 2004).

Eye Contact (Oculesics)

  • Eye contact is a core component of nonverbal communication and is studied within oculesics (from Latin oculus, ‘eye’).

  • The eyes are central to processing and transmitting communicative information; they provide cues about attention, engagement, and thoughts.

  • Functions of eye contact:

    • Regulates interaction and turn-taking (signal readiness to speak; cue others to respond).
    • Monitors interaction by receiving feedback from others and interpreting nonverbal cues.
    • Sends information about cognitive processing (we look away when thinking) and signals engagement (showing we are listening).
    • Helps establish rapport and interpersonal connection; can also convey intimidation or flirtation depending on context.

  • Dynamic patterns:

    • Americans typically shift eye contact while speaking (glancing away briefly, then returning to the speaker’s face); toward the end of a speaking turn, direct eye contact increases to signal closure.
    • During listening, sustained eye contact is common; less frequent glances than when speaking.

  • Pupil dilation (part of oculesics):

    • Involuntary physiological response; dilation occurs under low light and with arousal/anxiety, pain, sexual attraction, or information processing (Guerrero & Floyd, 2006).
    • Dilated pupils can increase perceived attractiveness; contributions to social judgments such as mood lighting effects (softer lighting can create perceived warmth/attraction) (Andersen, 1999).

Facial Expressions

  • The face is the most expressive part of the body and carries universal signals that can be recognized across cultures.
  • Core, universal expressions include happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust. Identification is strongest for happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust across cultures (Andersen, 1999).
  • Display rules shape how and when expressions are shown and can differ culturally; expressions can serve social purposes beyond internal states.
  • Smiles:
    • Social smiles are common and often differ from genuine ( Duchenne) smiles, which engage the muscles around the eyes and are harder to fake.
    • Genuine smiles are more likely to include eye involvement; photographs often try to elicit a genuine smile through social cues (e.g., jokes, props) (Evans, 2001).
  • Facial expressions set the emotional tone of a speech and influence perceived credibility and competence.
    • Expressions should align with content; incongruent expressions can confuse audiences and undermine credibility (e.g., a bored expression during serious content).
  • Practical tips:
    • Use a brief audience-friendly smile to set a positive, open tone at the start.
    • Match facial expressions to spoken content to support message and credibility.

Haptics (Touch)

  • Haptics studies touch as a form of nonverbal communication; touch can comfort but also threaten, and competence in using touch is important for social and professional outcomes.
  • Consequences of inappropriate touch can include negative judgments or legal risk.
  • Empirical findings show touch can influence impressions: library patrons receive more favorable judgments when librarians briefly touch them returning cards; female servers receive larger tips when they touch patrons; touch can increase likelihood of signing a petition (Andersen, 1999).
  • Types of touch (Heslin & Apler, 1983):
    • Functional-professional: goal-oriented; e.g., barbers, doctors, nurses, security screeners; touches are routine and less threatening.
    • Social-polite: initiating interactions and signaling inclusion; examples include a handshake, pat on the arm or shoulder; handholding should be brief to stay within acceptable levels.
    • Friendship-warmth: conveys closeness, liking, care; range from formal to more intimate; negotiating comfort levels is key to avoid misinterpretation or offense.
    • Love-intimacy: more personal; occurs between close friends, family, or romantic partners; fosters closeness but is not inherently sexual.
    • Sexual-arousal: most intimate; intended to stimulate physical closeness.
  • Touch in other contexts: play (arm wrestling), conflict (slapping), and everyday conversation touches (e.g., to gain attention).
  • First-date/timing cues: touching during early dating can signal interest; reciprocal touch often follows initial contact.
  • Varied hugging styles and meanings:
    • Crisscross hug: arms interwoven; common among friends, romantic partners, family; may occur with coworkers.
    • Neck-waist hug: arms around neck and waist; often in more intimate relationships; sometimes called a slow-dance hug.
    • Engulfing bear hug: one person’s arms fully wrap around the other; high excitement or enthusiasm.
    • Shake-first-then-tap hug: a handshake with a brief chest-to-chest touch; maintains less intimate contact; common among men.
    • Back-slap hug: a hug with a back slap; varies in intensity and duration.
  • Cultural and gender norms influence hugging styles; some norms push against displays of affection in public (e.g., due to concerns about masculinity or homophobia), affecting how close people allow themselves to be.
  • In dating, quick, fleeting touches can signal interest; longer or more intimate contact may carry different expectations and interpretations.

Vocalics (Paralanguage)

  • Paralanguage refers to nonlexical vocal aspects of communication: pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and fillers.
  • Functions of vocalics include:
    • Repetition: reinforcing or signaling uncertainty (e.g., saying "I’m not sure" with uncertain pitch).
    • Complementing: adding nuance to meaning (e.g., pitch/volume that conveys degree of love or sarcasm).
    • Accenting: emphasizing parts of a message (e.g., stressing particular words).
    • Substituting: using vocal cues in place of other cues (e.g., saying "uh-huh" to indicate listening).
    • Regulating: shaping flow of conversation (e.g., rising or falling pitch to indicate turn-taking).
    • Contradicting: vocal cues contradicting verbal content (e.g., saying "I’m fine" with a dismissive tone).
  • Pitch:
    • Higher pitch can signal questions or urgency in some contexts; babies can recognize rising endings as questions.
    • Adults with lower intelligence or children may have difficulty perceiving sarcasm in voice; sarcasm often relies on pitch and tone more than words (Andersen, 1999).
  • Volume:
    • Higher volume typically signals greater intensity; softer volume can convey secrecy or flirtation but may undermine credibility in formal settings (e.g., public speaking).
    • In digital communication, ALL CAPS is often interpreted as yelling.
  • Speaking rate:
    • Rate affects perceived credibility and intelligence; typical conversational rate is about 120–150 words per minute; slightly faster speaking can improve credibility if articulation remains clear (Bullerr & Burgoon, 1986).
    • Very fast speech without clear articulation can hinder comprehension; a humorous or charismatic delivery can improve compliance and persuasion.
  • Tone and vocal signature:
    • Each voice has a unique quality; resonance, pitch, and tone contribute to overall impression; nasal voices are often judged negatively.
    • Distinct voices (e.g., public figures or fictional characters) leave lasting impressions (Andersen, 1999).
  • Verbal fillers:
    • Sounds like "um," "uh," "like," and "ah"; serve to hold the floor while thinking; in formal settings, fillers can reduce credibility.
  • Functions of vocalics in detail:
    • Repetition, Complementing, Accenting, Substituting, Regulating, Contradicting (as above).

Proxemics (Space)

  • Proxemics studies how space and distance influence communication. Space is linked to relationships, power, and social norms.
  • Personal space and crowding can influence behavior and even criminal/ delinquent tendencies in crowded environments (mob mentality) (Andersen, 1999).
  • Proxemic distances (for Americans; Hall, 1968):
    • Public Space: d \ge 12 \, ext{ft} \
    • Social Space: 4 \,\text{ft} \le d < 12 \,\text{ft}
    • Personal Space: 1.5 \,\text{ft} \le d \le 4 \,\text{ft}
    • Intimate Space: d < 1.5 \,\text{ft}
  • Territoriality:
    • Primary territories: spaces exclusively owned or controlled by an individual (e.g., home, room, desk, bed side, medicine cabinet shelf).
    • Secondary territories: not exclusively owned but associated with a person; space is expected to be available when needed (e.g., preferred seating areas in class).
    • Public territories: open to all, used for a limited time; individuals may place markers to reserve space (e.g., jackets, bags, papers, drinks).
    • Markers can be ambiguous (e.g., a full cup vs. half-full cup) and have varying durations of effect (full drink may reserve space for >1 hour; half-full cup for <10 minutes).
  • Effects on behavior and interaction:
    • Proximity changes can influence comfort, impression management, and social dynamics in classrooms, meetings, and public spaces.

Chronemics (Time)

  • Chronemics studies how time affects communication, including biological, personal, physical, and cultural time (Andersen, 1999).
  • Biological time: circadian rhythms influencing energy, mood, and performance, impacting when to schedule important talks or respond to others.
  • Personal time: subjective experience of time, influenced by mood and interest; orientation toward past or future matters (e.g., reminiscence vs. planning).
  • Physical time: fixed daily/seasonal cycles; seasons can affect mood (seasonal affective disorder).
  • Cultural time: monochronic vs. polychronic orientations:
    • Monochronic: linear time, emphasis on schedules and one task at a time (common in many Western contexts).
    • Polychronic: flexible, multitasking approach; time is more fluid in some cultures.
  • Status and time: power dynamics influence waiting times (e.g., doctors may keep patients waiting; executives may be late).
  • Conversational turns and pacing are also shaped by chronemic norms, impacting turn-taking and interaction flow.

Personal Presentation and Environment

  • Personal presentation includes physical characteristics and artifacts that convey nonverbal messages.

    • Physical characteristics: body shape, height, weight, attractiveness; while we cannot fully control these cues, they influence initial impressions (attractiveness advantages persist despite varying cultural ideals).
    • Artifacts and adornments send messages: clothing style, body art (piercings, tattoos), hairstyles, jewelry, and other symbols.
    • Symbols and meanings: religious or cultural symbols (e.g., cross, rainbow flag); rubber bracelets as social cause markers.

  • Artifacts and environmental cues:

    • The surroundings we inhabit convey messages about formality, status, and climate; objects and room layout influence interaction (e.g., lighting, seating, ambiance).
    • Environments can shape communication climate: a therapist’s room with soft lighting and ambient sounds may foster trust and openness; a formal setting may signal hierarchy and power.

  • Fashioning avatars and environments:

    • Avatars are computer-generated representations used in online and offline contexts, ranging from static buddy icons to highly realistic 3-D holograms.
    • Avatars can influence behavior and social perceptions; similarity to the user and alignment with ideal self increase influence (appearance as a key attribute) (Baylor, 2011).
    • People curate avatars to project a nonverbal self-presentation that can spill into real-world behavior (Kim, Lee, & Kang, 2012).

  • Avatars and reflection questions:
    1) Describe an avatar you created and how it reflects your nonverbal self-presentation; if you haven’t created one, describe what you would create and why.
    2) Consider boundary questions about human-avatar relationships and the potential future fusion of human reality with avatar fantasy; discuss implications for interacting with avatars in customer service, mentoring, or education.

Practical Implications and Real-World Relevance

  • Nonverbal signals can reinforce or undermine verbal messages; mismatches can reduce credibility.
  • In professional settings, mastery of nonverbal cues (gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, vocalics, space) enhances communication effectiveness, rapport building, and audience engagement.
  • Awareness of cultural differences in all nonverbal channels (emblems, proxemics, chronemics, oculesics) is essential for intercultural communication.
  • Ethical considerations arise in touch, surveillance of pupil dilation, and the use of avatars; respectful boundaries and consent are central to effective communication.

Key Points (Summary)

  • Kinesics includes Gestures (Adaptors, Emblems, Illustrators), Head Movements and Posture, and Eye Contact (Oculesics).
  • Facial Expressions include universal core emotions and the distinction between genuine and social/controlled smiles; display rules influence expression.
  • Haptics covers multiple levels of touch: functional-professional, social-polite, friendship-warmth, love-intimacy, and sexual-arousal; touches carry relational and power implications and can influence judgments and outcomes.
  • Vocalics (paralanguage) encompasses pitch, volume, rate, tone, vocal quality, and fillers; functions include repetition, complementing, accenting, substituting, regulating, and contradicting verbal content.
  • Proxemics defines four space zones: Public, Social, Personal, and Intimate, plus territoriality (primary, secondary, public) and markers used to reserve space.
  • Chronemics studies time in communication: biological, personal, physical, and cultural time; monochronic vs. polychronic orientations shape scheduling and interaction pace.
  • Personal Presentation and Environment discuss how physical characteristics and artifacts (clothing, jewelry, tattoos, symbols) and surrounding environment send nonverbal cues; avatars illustrate self-presentation and cross-reality implications.
  • References cited include Andersen (1999), Pease & Pease (2004), Hall (1968), and subsequent empirical work on avatars and nonverbal cues (Baylor, 2011; Kim, Lee, & Kang, 2012).

References (selected)

  • Andersen, P. A. (1999). Nonverbal communication: Forms and functions. Mayfield.
  • Pease, A., & Pease, B. (2004). The Definitive Book of Body Language. Bantam.
  • Hall, E. T. (1968). Proxemics. Current Anthropology.
  • Guerrer o, L. K., & Floyd, K. (2006). Nonverbal communication in close relationships.
  • Buller, D. B., & Burgoon, J. K. (1986). The effects of vocalics and nonverbal sensitivity on compliance. Human Communication Research.
  • Evans, D. (2001). Emotion: The science of sentiment. Oxford University Press.
  • Floyd, K. (2006). Communicating affection. Cambridge University Press.
  • Pease, A., & Pease, B. (2004). The definitive book of body language. Bantam.
  • Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2010). Intercultural communication in contexts (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
  • Jones, S. E. (1999). Communicating with touch. In Guerrero et al., The Nonverbal Communication Reader. Waveland Press.
  • Kim, C., Lee, S.-G., & Kang, M. (2012). I became an attractive person in the virtual world. Computers in Human Behavior.
  • Fox, J., & Bailenson, J. M. (2009). Virtual self-modeling. Media Psychology.
  • Kravitz, D. (2010). Airport pat-downs; The Washington Post.
  • Strunsky, S. (2012). New airport service rep is stiff and phony, but she’s friendly. Nj.Com.