Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948): "What difference does it make to the dead, the orphans, and the homeless, whether the mad destruction is wrought under the name of totalitarianism or the holy name of liberty and democracy?"
Essential Question
Prompt: What were differing reactions to existing power structures after 1900?
Overview of Conflicts in the 20th Century
The 20th century experienced significant conflicts affecting both newly independent states and long-established ones.
Successful challenges to existing orders included:
Nonviolent movements (e.g., Mohandas Gandhi).
Violent movements (e.g., Shining Path in Peru).
Militarization of authority (e.g., Francisco Franco in Spain).
Expansion of military-industrial complexes where governments increased arms supplies.
Nonviolent Resistance as a Path to Change
General Observations
Despite prevalent wars and violent protests, many movements utilized nonviolent means for political change, often led by visionary leaders.
Major Figures and Movements
Mohandas Gandhi
Leader of nonviolent resistance against British colonial rule in India.
Tactics included:
Nonviolent marches
Boycotts
Fasts
Achieved Indian independence in 1947.
Martin Luther King Jr.
Prominent leader of the African American civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s.
Utilized various tactics:
Judicial Actions: Court decisions like Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which deemed forced racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.
Bus Boycotts: Year-long boycott of public buses in Montgomery, Alabama (1955-1956) ending segregation in public transport.
Mass Marches: Notable participation in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1964) with about 250,000 attendees.
These efforts laid the groundwork for significant legislative victories, including the Civil Rights Act of 1965.
Nelson Mandela
Key figure in the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, leading the black resistance against a white-minority government.
Initially supported sabotage and violence but later focused on leading nonviolent protests.
Notable event: Victory over apartheid, covered extensively in related literature.
Challenges to Soviet Power in Eastern Europe
General Observations
The 1950s and 1960s witnessed reform movements in Eastern European countries under Soviet influence, commonly met with severe Soviet repression.
Country-Specific Movements
Poland (1956)
Workers protested against Soviet domination, demanding better living conditions.
Wladyslaw Gomulka became the new Communist Party Secretary and pursued an independent policy while maintaining allegiance to the Soviet Union.
Resulted in the termination of forced collectivization.
Hungary (1956)
Protests led by citizens resulted in political leader Imre Nagy declaring independence from Soviet control and demanding troop withdrawal.
Nagy implemented promises for free elections and neutrality in the Cold War.
The Soviet Union invaded, executed Nagy, and retained control, causing a mass exodus of refugees to the West.
Czechoslovakia (Prague Spring - 1968)
Under Alexander Dubcek, reforms granted increased freedoms and proposed democratic reforms.
The movement faced backlash from Soviet forces; the intervention was justified by the Brezhnev Doctrine, which asserted that the Soviet Union could intervene to preserve socialism in its sphere of influence.
The Year of Revolt (1968)
Major Historical Events
Numerous global protests and revolts erupted in 1968:
Yugoslavia: Student marches against authoritarian governance.
Poland/Northern Ireland: Protests related to religious discrimination.
Brazil: Marches for educational improvements and workers' rights.
Japan: Student protests against university policies and U.S. involvement in Vietnam war.
Mexico: Military violently suppressed protests prior to the 1968 Olympics.
France: Major uprisings in Paris led to the largest general strike in French history, prompting political changes.
The United States' Response to Protests
Key Events
Protests mounted notably against the Vietnam War; major incidents include:
Kent State University shooting (May 4, 1970) where four unarmed students were killed by the Ohio National Guard, spurring national outrage and protests across colleges.
An Age of Terrorism
General Observations
Post-Cold War era saw a rise in terrorism not directly affiliated with state actors but instigated by individuals or groups.
Conflict in Northern Ireland
Following independence in 1922, Northern Ireland (dominated by Protestants) faced sectarian violence.
Conflicts escalated in the 1960s, involving the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Ulster Defence Association.
By 1994, ceasefires were established, with the IRA renouncing violence in favor of political routes.
Separatism in Spain
ETA (Basque Homeland and Freedom) engaged in violence to push for independence, leading to over 800 deaths. They declared an end to violence in 2011.
Peru's Shining Path
Led by Abimael Guzmán in the 1970s, the Shining Path caused widespread violence in pursuit of a communist regime, resulting in an estimated 37,000 deaths. Guzmán was arrested in 1992; negotiations began in 2011 for peace.
Islamic Terrorism
Groups like Boko Haram, al-Shabaab, ISIL, and Taliban engaged in violent acts, mainly targeting non-combatants, including civilians in Europe. One significant event was September 11, 2001, orchestrated by al-Qaeda, resulting in over 3,000 deaths.
Terrorism in the United States
Major Incidents
The Oklahoma City bombing (1995) exemplified domestic terrorism, claiming 168 lives.
Other acts targeted marginalized groups amid rising anti-immigrant, anti-Muslim, and extremist sentiments.
Response of Militarized States
Case Studies
Spain under Franco
Francisco Franco's dictatorship (1939-1975) was marked by brutal repression of dissenters and conservative alignment with the U.S.
Opposition eventually emerged after Franco’s death, leading to democratic reforms.
Uganda under Idi Amin
Idi Amin's rule (1971-1979) was characterized by severe human rights abuses, ethnic cleansing, and economic collapse. His removal came through a joint effort with Tanzanian forces and Ugandan nationalists.
The Military-Industrial Complex
Economic and Political Repercussions
The military-industrial complex emerged out of national security concerns, leading to significant military expansion globally. U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower warned against the excessive power of this complex threatening democratic institutions.