Infancy

Growth and Development

Principles of Growth and Development

• Definition of Growth and Development

  • Growth refers to the physical changes that a person experiences which are measurable and occur in a steady and orderly manner.
  • Development relates to changes in psychological and social functioning.

• Differences between Growth and Development

  • Although they differ, both growth and development share the following basic principles:
  • Starts at fertilization and continues until death.
  • Proceeds from the simple to the complex.
  • Occurs in certain directions.
  • Occurs in a sequence, order, and pattern.
  • The rate of the process is uneven.
  • Each stage has its own characteristics and developmental tasks as guidelines.

Selected Theories of Human Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Overview

  • Published in 1936 and focuses on children from birth through adolescence.

• Basic Assumptions about Children

  • Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.
  • Children learn independently without influence from adults or peers.

• Four Stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development

  • Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 18-24 months)
  • Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-7 years)
  • Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11 years)
  • Formal Operational Stage (Ages 11 years and older)

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Overview

  • Consists of Eight stages of psychosocial development, each involving a crisis of two opposing forces.

• Stages

  • Stage 1: Trust vs. mistrust
  • Stage 2: Autonomy vs. doubt
  • Stage 3: Initiative vs. guilt
  • Stage 4: Competence vs. inferiority
  • Stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion
  • Stage 6: Intimacy vs. isolation
  • Stage 7: Generativity vs. stagnation
  • Stage 8: Integrity vs. despair

• Influences on Psychosocial Health

  • Personality
  • Family background
  • Environment
  • Life circumstances

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Overview

  • Developed by American psychologist Abraham Maslow, this theory categorizes human needs necessary for maintaining life and psychosocial well-being.

• Definition of Needs

  • Needs are seen as something necessary or desirable.
  • Certain basic needs must be met for a person to survive and function.

• Hierarchy Structure

  • Needs are arranged in a hierarchy, where lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs:
  • Basic Needs (Lowest to Highest)
    • Physical needs
    • Need for safety
    • Need for love and belonging
    • Need for self-esteem
    • Need for self-actualization

Infancy Development

Key Learning Objectives from Infancy Lectures

1. Analyze the task associated with infancy according to Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development (Trust vs. Mistrust).
2. Analyze the conflict associated with infancy according to Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development (Oral).
3. Describe physical, cognitive, emotional, and social milestones of infancy:
   • Motor and sensory abilities.
   • Primitive and adaptive reflexes.
   • Object permanence.
   • Classical and operant conditioning.
4. Describe the development of cognition, morality, and self-esteem during infancy (Subjective self and Emotional self).
5. Describe the theory of attachment, its obstacles, and potential outcomes:
   • Synchrony.
   • Stranger anxiety.
   • Separation anxiety.

Infants’ Developmental Tasks

• Erikson's Stage = Trust vs. Mistrust
  • Learning to walk.
  • Learning to eat solid foods.
  • Beginning to communicate.
  • Beginning to have emotional relationships with primary caregivers and siblings.

Growth and Development Characteristics during Infancy (Birth to 1 Year)

• A time of rapid physical, psychological, and social growth and development.
• The developmental tasks include:
  • Learning to walk.
  • Learning to eat solid foods.
  • Beginning to talk and communicate with others.
  • Developing stable sleep and feeding patterns.

Neonate or Newborn

• Physical Measurements
  • Average length: 48–53 cm (19–21 in).
  • Weight: 3200–3600 g (7–8 lb).
  • Birth weight doubles by 5 to 6 months and triples by the first birthday.
• Central Nervous System (CNS) Development
  • Not well developed.
  • Movements are uncoordinated and lack purpose.

Infant's Central Nervous System

• Development at Birth
  • Brain stem is well developed, controlling basic body functions.
  • Cortex is the least developed, responsible for higher brain functions.
• Mature Development Predictions
  • Predictable changes in reflexes, sensory capacity, and sleep-wake patterns.

General Growth and Development Principles

• Growth signifies an increase in physical size.
• Development enhances ability in skills or functions.
• Children grow in two directions:
  • Cephalocaudal (head to tail) direction.
  • Proximal–distal (near–far) pattern.
• Growth is a continuous process.

Temporary Reflexes in Newborns

• *Basic Reflexes *
  • Moro reflex, Rooting reflex, Sucking reflex, Grasping (palmar) reflex.

Types of Reflexes

• Involuntary movements in response to specific stimuli:
  • Adaptive Reflexes
  • Help the baby survive and some cease over time (e.g., rooting, sucking).
  • Some persist throughout life (e.g., withdrawal from painful stimuli).
  • Weak or absent reflexes may indicate brain issues.
  • Primitive Reflexes
  • Disappear by about 6 months of age.
  • Includes Moro reflex, Grasping reflex, Babinski reflex. Persistence may indicate neurological problems.

Motor Development Milestones

• Infancy (Birth to 1 Month)

  • Newborns can see but vision is not clear.
  • Various cry sounds emerge.
  • Significant reflexes and uncoordinated movements observed.

• Motor Skills by Age Stage

  • 1 month: Can hold head up.
  • 2 months: Smiles, follows movements of objects.
  • 4 months: Able to roll over and can sit if supported; reflexes fade.
  • 6 months: Two lower front teeth emerge; starts to chew and sit alone.
  • 10 months: Understands a number of words.
  • 1 year: Takes a few steps; begins to walk.

Sensory Abilities

Vision

• Newborns focus on objects approximately 20-25 cm away (ideal distance for feeding).

Hearing

• Able to differentiate voices, especially that of their mother, before birth.

Smell and Taste

• Both senses are developed at birth, capable of distinguishing various tastes, including mother's smell.

Cognitive Development in Infants

Object Permanence

• Stages of Understanding
  • 0-6 months: No understanding of object permanence.
  • 6-8 months: Searches for object if partially visible.
  • 8-12 months: Searches for completely covered objects.

Classical Conditioning and Learning Processes

• Habituation
  • Learning to recognize and react to familiar stimuli through repeated exposure.

Social Skill Development

• Development through attachment and social referencing begins around 10 months.
• Attachment Phases:
  • Pre-attachment Phase (Birth–6 weeks): Attraction to caregiver.
  • Attachment In-Making Phase (6 weeks–6-8 months): Differentiates between familiar caregivers and strangers.
  • Clear-Cut Attachment Phase (6-8 months to 18 months–2 years): Evidence of attachment, separation anxiety appears.
  • Formation of Reciprocal Relationship Phase (18 months–2 years+).

Consequences of Secure Attachments

• Developmental benefits include:
  • Higher self-esteem, better grades, and emotional maturity.
  • More empathetic and socially skilled, less aggressive.
  • Higher likelihood of forming secure attachments later in life.

Development of Self-Concept

• Emotional Self
  • Evolving from simple emotions at birth to more complex emotions like fear by 6-7 months.
• Subjective Self
  • Recognizing separation from others and understanding object permanence by 8-12 months.

Common Developmental Challenges

• Colic: crying for extended periods by a healthy infant.
• Feeding disorders: ranging from overeating to undereating.
• Sleep difficulties: including night terrors and issues falling asleep.