American Expansionism Lecture Notes

American Expansionism in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

Question to Consider

  • What were the mixtures of motives and ideas, objectives, and practices involved in American expansionism in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

Early Continental Expansion

  • By the time of the Civil War, the U.S. had expanded across the continent through purchase, negotiation, and conquest.
  • By 1867, the U.S. possessed:
    • Indian lands
    • Louisiana Territory (purchased from Napoleon in 1803)
    • Florida (ceded by Spain in 1819)
    • Texas (annexed in 1845)
    • Mexican Cession (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848): California, Nevada, Arizona, parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming.
    • Oregon Territory (Treaty with Great Britain, 1846)
    • Alaska (purchased from Russia in 1867)

Texas Annexation and the Mexican-American War

  • Texas, originally Spanish territory, became Mexican territory in 1821.
  • Mexico encouraged foreign colonization in the 1820s, attracting mostly Americans from the Southern states who brought slaves.
  • In 1836, Texas declared independence (Lone Star Republic), led by Sam Houston, with the aim of annexation to the U.S.
  • Annexation was delayed due to the slavery controversy.
  • Texas was annexed in 1845, leading to the Mexican-American War in 1846.
  • The U.S. gained about half of Mexico's national domain through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848.
  • Gadsden Purchase in 1853 completed territorial acquisitions from Mexico.

Later Acquisitions and Territorial Expansion

  • Treaty in 1818 ceded territory in the Northwest to the U.S. from Canada.
  • Florida was ceded to the U.S. by Spain in 1819.
  • Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867.
  • By the 1920s, the American empire included:
    • Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam, and the Philippines (from the Spanish-American War)
    • Hawaii (annexed in 1898)
    • Numerous military interventions in South and Central America.
    • The building of the Panama Canal.

Ideological Arguments for Expansion

  • Social Darwinism: The U.S. needed to compete for wealth and power; survival of the fittest applied to nations.
  • Belief in racial inequality and the superiority of Anglo-Saxon descent.
  • Obligation to spread democracy and Christian civilization.
  • Manifest Destiny: The belief that America was destined by God to expand across the continent.
  • American exceptionalism and the idea of a special American mission, dating back to the Puritans' vision of a "city on a hill."

Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion

  • Westward expansion was seen as a movement from lightness to darkness, displacing Native Americans and buffalo.
  • Superiority justified slavery and the removal of Native Americans from their lands (e.g., the Trail of Tears of the Cherokee).
  • Manifest Destiny justified the acquisition of Texas and the war with Mexico.
  • Mexicans were treated similarly to Native Americans, seen as inferior and displaced from their lands.

New Manifest Destiny and the White Man's Burden

  • In the late 19th century, the concept of "new manifest destiny" or "white man's burden" emerged.
  • Based on British colonial experiences, it suggested that white men had a duty to bring civilization to backward peoples.
  • Advertisements, like those for Pears Soap, promoted the idea of cleanliness as a step towards civilization.
  • American missionaries played a role in expansion, hoping to evangelize the world (e.g., in the Oregon Territory and Hawaii).

Strategic and Economic Motivations

  • Expansionists sought to protect U.S. borders from aggressive nations, especially Great Britain and Germany.
  • Alfred Thayer Mahan advocated for a strong navy in "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History".
    • Building a canal across the Isthmus of Panama
    • Building naval bases to protect the canal
    • Annexing Hawaii and other Pacific islands
    • Abandoning isolationist foreign policy
  • Economic expansion was a primary motive, aiming to create markets for manufacturers, merchants, bankers, and farmers.
  • The U.S. aggressively fostered trade, especially in Latin America and East Asia.
  • Overseas expansion was seen as a way to relieve the boom and bust cycle of the Industrial Revolution and address overproduction.

Rationale for American Expansion (Imperialism)

  • Often termed imperialism (though perceived negatively, especially in European contexts).
  • Motivations included:
    • Racism and Social Darwinism
    • Expanding Christianity and democracy
    • Mahinism: The theories of Alfred Thayer Mahan relating naval power to national strength
    • Economics: Acquiring foreign markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities

Hawaii

  • Interest in overseas empire began in Hawaii, where New England missionaries had been active since the 1820s.
  • Treaties in 1875 and 1887 integrated the islands into the American economy and gave the U.S. control over Pearl Harbor.
  • American planters overthrew the Hawaiian government in 1893 with the help of U.S. Marines.

Spanish-American War and Yellow Journalism

  • American sympathy was aroused by sensationalist yellow press, which used bold headlines and exaggerated stories to attract readers.
  • The circulation war between William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World stimulated interest in Cuba.
  • Yellow journalism advocated American intervention in Cuba, highlighting Spanish brutality.
  • The Protestant press also supported intervention due to Spain's Catholic identity.
  • Spain offered Cuba limited sovereignty, but Cubans demanded complete independence.

The Sinking of the Maine and the Declaration of War

  • The U.S. battleship Maine blew up in Havana Harbor on February 15, killing 266 men.
  • The U.S. blamed Spain, though later investigations suggested internal causes.
  • The sinking of the Maine, fueled by public and congressional fury, led President McKinley to prepare for war.
  • Congress declared war on Spain on April 25, 1898, after heated debate.
  • The Teller Amendment disclaimed any intention to exercise sovereignty over Cuba.
  • The war was a quick success, mainly a naval assault against a weak enemy.
  • U.S. troops, including Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders, lost fewer than 400 men in battle.
  • However, almost 5,000 lives were lost to disease and poor medical treatment.
  • Roosevelt described it as a "splendid little war."

Key Engagements and Territorial Acquisitions

  • The decisive engagement occurred in the Philippines, with Commodore Dewey taking Manila Bay.
  • The desire for the Philippines aimed to open Asia for American commercial expansion.
  • Dewey's victory precipitated the annexation of Hawaii.
  • The map illustrates the battles in the Philippines and Cuba.

Armistice and Treaty Terms

  • The armistice required Spain to:
    • Accept Cuban independence
    • Cede Puerto Rico and Guam
    • Allow the U.S. to occupy Manila
  • The treaty also included the acquisition of the Virgin Islands from Denmark.

Current Status

  • The U.S. Virgin Islands comprise St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix.

Control of Puerto Rico

  • The U.S. coveted Puerto Rico for its strategic location in the Caribbean.
  • The Insular Cases (1901) upheld Congress's authority to establish an inferior status for Puerto Rico as an unincorporated territory.
  • An American governor was appointed by the U.S. President.
  • In 1917, Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship.
  • Puerto Ricans continue to debate their colonial status, with some advocating independence, statehood, or greater autonomy.
  • Puerto Rico has a commissioner in the U.S. Congress but no voting representation or electoral votes.

Control of The Philippines

  • McKinley justified acquiring the Philippines by promising to extend Christian influence and American values.
  • He believed Filipinos were unfit for self-rule and feared German or Japanese seizure if the U.S. did not act.

Control of Cuba

  • In the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States.
  • American businessmen consolidated their hold on local sugar plantations.
  • The U.S. military oversaw a constitutional convention that made Cuba a protectorate.
  • Platt Amendment (1901):
    • Cuba promised to provide land for American bases.
    • Repay debts owed to American businessmen.
    • Sign no treaty detrimental to American interests.
    • Acknowledge the right of the U.S. to intervene to protect its interests.
  • These stipulations were incorporated into the Cuban-American Treaty of 1903, lasting until 1934.
  • Cuba was essentially an American protectorate with limited independence.
  • The U.S. military intervened in Cuban affairs three times between 1906 and 1917.
  • During occupation, Americans modernized Cuba by eradicating yellow fever, building schools and roads.
  • However, most Cubans felt these benefits did not compensate for the loss of political and economic independence.

Debate Over Expansionism

  • The decision to acquire the Philippines sparked a debate over the Treaty of Paris.
  • Expansionists cited economic expansion, national destiny, strategic necessity, and religious/racial responsibilities.
  • Opponents questioned America's national goals and ideals.
  • The Anti-Imperialist League included figures like Andrew Carnegie, Samuel Gompers, Mark Twain, and William Jennings Bryan.
  • The Senate narrowly ratified the treaty on February 6, 1899.

Filipino Rebellion

  • Filipino nationalists rebelled against U.S. forces when the Treaty of Paris provided for ownership rather than independence.
  • The rebellion lasted four years, costing nearly 5,000 American and countless Filipino lives.
  • Civilians died in concentration camps set up by Americans.

Moro Crater Massacre

  • On March 10, 1906, the Moro Crater Massacre occurred, involving massacres by the U.S. Army.
  • General Smith ordered the killing of everyone over the age of 10 in a village area.
  • The U.S. employed brutal methods similar to those it had condemned Spain for. This episode is often omitted from history books.
  • The Philippines gained independence on July 4, 1946.

Interventions in Latin America

  • The U.S. Navy exercised imperial power in Latin America, intervening 20 times in the first two decades of the 20th century.
  • Interventions occurred in Chile, Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, and Puerto Rico.
  • These interventions protected American interests but ignored the wishes of Latin Americans, causing resistance and lasting ill will.

Roosevelt and Big Stick Diplomacy

  • President Theodore Roosevelt took for granted the superiority of Anglo-American culture and sought to spread American values.
    • He summarized his views with the saying, "Speak softly and carry a big stick. You will go far."
  • Big stick diplomacy and a strong presidency became important aspects of American foreign policy.

Panama Canal

  • The canal was a top priority for Roosevelt.
  • Colombia refused a leasing agreement for the Isthmus of Panama.
  • Roosevelt fostered a Panamanian revolution against Colombia, aided by the U.S. military.
  • On November 3, 1903, Panama declared independence.
  • The U.S. immediately recognized the Republic of Panama and guaranteed its independence.
  • Panama granted the U.S. full sovereignty over a 10-mile-wide canal zone.
  • The Panama Canal was a triumph of modern engineering, providing the U.S. with strategic and commercial advantages.

Additional Interventions

  • Numerous interventions in Latin America, including Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Mexico, and Nicaragua.