MAC 207: Detailed Lecture Notes on Graphics of Communication

Conceptual Foundations of Graphics and Communication

Graphics are defined as texts, drawings, designs, illustrations, or images deliberately created via a medium, whether by hand or other means, to convey visual, cultural, aesthetic, or commercial meaning. These creations are not accidental or products of serendipity; they are intentional acts inspired by the creator’s internal state, other beings, or the environment. Graphics are categorized as either functional or artistic. Functional graphics serve a utility-oriented purpose, such as text and photographs in newspapers intended to inform, educate, and provide data. Artistic graphics are created to invoke an aesthetic sense, style, or imagination, often aiming to create feelings or fantasies.

Communication is the transmission of a message from one point to another to produce a specific effect. Harold Lasswell ($1948$) described communication through five pertinent questions: Who? Says what? In what channel? To whom? With what effect? Berelson and Steiner ($1964$) defined it as the transmission of information, ideas, skills, and emotions via symbols such as words, pictures, or groups. Hovland, Janis, and Kelley ($1953$) viewed it as a process wherein an individual (the communicator) transmits stimuli, particularly verbal, to modify the behavior of the audience. Communication is effective only when the receiver makes meaning of the message and responds; without a response, it is considered one-way.

Graphics of communication is the process of using texts or graphics to communicate meaningfully. This involves producing graphics for information, education, and entertainment. A graphic is considered to have the "right meaning" when it successfully transmits a message, instruction, or idea. It exists as a major pillar of visual communication, which utilizes two or three-dimensional aids. Cultural meaningfulness in this context implies the graphic is performing one or more functions: persuading, informing, educating, or entertaining. Its effectiveness is measured by the audience's rate of response.

Historical Evolution and Technical Tools

The history of graphics dates back nearly $6,000$ years to engraved stone tablets and ceramic cylinder seals used for accounting and inventory. Ancient Egyptians used papyrus, limestone slabs, and wood to plan architectural feats like the pyramids. Between $600$ and $250$ BC, Greeks utilized graphics to represent mathematical theories, including the Circle Theorem and the Pythagorean Theorem.

In the modern era, the $1980$s marked a turning point as personal computers became serious design tools for accuracy and efficiency. 3D computer graphics emerged in the late $1980$s using powerful SGI (Silicon Graphics, Inc.) computers, leading to the first computer-generated short films. Today, the Macintosh remains a dominant tool in graphic design studios and businesses for professional production.

Classification of Computer Graphics: Vectors and Bitmaps

Computer graphics are primarily divided into two types: Vector graphics and Bitmaps. Vector graphics, as noted by Mukhopadhyay and Chattopadhyay ($2007$), are created directly on a computer without external systems. They consist of graphic primitives like lines, curves, and shapes generated from programmed algorithms that define position, length, and direction. Because they are math-based, they can be scaled without loss of quality.

Bitmaps, also known as rasterized images, consist of pixels, which are tiny square-shaped picture elements recognized by the computer. Each pixel maps a specific location and contains numerical color values. Unlike vectors, bitmaps require independent applications or hardware to be input into a system, such as digital cameras or scanners. Common sources of bitmaps include photographs, scanned images, internet downloads, and clip art (ready-made images for importing and editing). Bitmaps are often heavy files and must be saved in specific formats to manage file size and application compatibility.

Standard Graphic File Formats and Compression

Various file formats exist to support different levels of compression and image data. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) is a high-end standard for image compression used across web and graphic platforms. It supports color modes from $8\text{-bit}$ gray scale to $32\text{-bit}$ CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black). Its compression ratios range from $2$ (high quality) to $255$ (high compression, low quality). TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) offers good compression but is less flexible than JPEG, as it supports seven encoding schedules and cannot save duotone color mode information. It is commonly used for CMYK and RGB but can be slow to load when compressed with Packbits $32773$ or CCIT.

PSD is the native, default file format for Adobe Photoshop, widely used for image editing. It may not be compatible with all other applications, similar to PICT files which are native to the Mac Operating System. PDF (Portable Document Format) is highly popular due to its cross-platform flexibility. Based on the PostScript imaging system, it uses the PostScript language to precisely describe the layout of vector and bitmap images for viewing and printing. MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group) serves as a standard for compressing audio and video data, effectively acting as the motion version of JPEG.

Dimensionality, Animation, and Resolution

Graphics appear in various forms, including 2D and 3D. 2-D graphics are generated from two-dimensional models; while they do not show all sides of an object, they can represent real-world objects convincingly, such as using a circle with lines to represent a soccer ball. 3-D graphics are necessary when detail is required, such as a triangular prism which has four sides (three triangles and a base). In technical drawings, non-visible sides are indicated with dotted lines, known as hidden lines.

Animation is a sequence of drawings or models played by software to give the impression of motion. The process begins with a storyboard defining the action and identifying the dramatis personae (objects). Still frames are generated manually or via software to simulate movement.

Resolution is critical for bitmap clarity. It relates to the pixel dimension—the number of pixels horizontally and vertically. Image clarity on a monitor depends on the image's pixel composition relative to the monitor's settings. For example, an $800 \times 600$ pixel image appears small on a $21\text{-inch}$ monitor. Digital detail in printing is measured in pixels per inch (ppi) or dots per inch (dpi). Adjusting resolution controls how pixels conform to the physical printing space; printers treat each pixel as a dot.

Practical Applications and the Investigative Process

Graphics are vital in advertising and entertainment, providing cost-effective alternatives to live-action filming through animation and digital design. In publishing, graphics are indispensable; a newspaper without high-quality graphics may fail, and web visitors are often deterred by "ugly" websites. For advertisers, good graphics provide the platform to sell services reaching millions or billions of users on the World Wide Web.

The process of creating graphics involves several distinct phases. First is problem identification, where an idea or feeling is objectified into points or questions. Second is visualization, identifying keywords in the problem statement to create a conceptual map. Third is sketching, where ideas are given physical form. Fourth is preparation, where the work is judged for worth. The final stage is the actual communication of the graphic to the audience.

Typography as a Tool for Communication

Typography is the science and art of using typefaces for communication. It is considered a science when following rules to make meaning and an art when using skill to create impressions. Johannes Gutenberg is regarded as the father of typography, having developed movable type. A type is a single print character with communication value that becomes manifest when grouped. For example, the characters G, O, O, D, N, E, S, and S form the word "GOODNESS." Typography has a longitudinal standpoint (understanding language) and a latitudinal standpoint (making sense as graphics).

A typographer is an expert in types and can be a font designer. A typesetter is the person or machine that assembles types. Errors in this process are called typographical errors. Famous designers include Aldus Manutius, Herman Zapf, Jan Tschichold, John Baskerville, Eric Gill (who designed Gill Sans), and Adrian Frutiger (who designed Univers).

A font is a coordinated set of one or more types sharing common features, including letters $A$ to $Z$, numerals, and symbols of the same size. A typeface refers to a family of types, such as the Arial family, which includes Arial Narrow, Arial Black, Arial Rounded MT Bold, and Arial Unicode MS. Script typefaces mimic handwriting and are used for logos, mastheads, and formal cards. Cursive fonts, like Comic Sans MS or Monotype Corsiva, emulate quick handwriting and are generally avoided for body text in professional design.

Management of Type Space and Legibility

Typography is also defined as the study of type and the space around it. Kerning is the adjustment of space between individual letters to increase balance and legibility, often used for letters like $A$ and $V$. Tracking is the adjustment of horizontal space between words. Leading (pronounced "Lheding") is the background space between lines of text. Standard leading for a $12\text{-point}$ font is typically $14.4\text{-points}$, and for $14\text{-point}$ font, it is $16.8\text{-points}$.

Text alignment affects readability. Right alignment creates "jaggedness" on the left, making it difficult for the eye to track. Left alignment is standard for readability, often used in feature stories for effect. Center alignment is common in advertisements but rare in newspapers. Justified text is a staple for newspapers and web design as it creates even margins, though it may require hyphenation to prevent irregular spacing between words.

Strategic Design Policy and Visual Literacy

Successful design requires a design policy tailored to the audience. Demographic and psychographic research helps determine the audience's age, income, lifestyle, and culture. For example, elderly audiences require larger, bolder fonts for legibility. Visual literacy is the audience's ability to decode graphics. Socio-cultural factors also matter; in Nigeria, green suggests agriculture and sustainability, while excessive black may suggest a graveyard.

The next step is determining typography that ensures legibility, readability, and communication while considering printing constraints; some fonts may not print clearly. Managers must orientate sub-editors and designers to these policies, as failure to follow the established style can lead to organizational damage or termination of employment. The final stages involve the daily execution and regular evaluation of the design policy.

Photojournalism and Photographic Appeal

A photograph is an image formed by light interacting with an object, recorded by a camera. The term was coined by John Herschel in $1839$. Digital photography uses electronic imagers like CCD or CMOS chips to store data as JPEG or TIFF. Manual photography uses light-sensitive film. In journalism, photojournalism is the practice of using photos for news, overseen by a photo editor at the photo desk.

Photographs are selected based on five types of appeal: Information appeal (conveying news), Education appeal (increasing knowledge), Entertainment appeal (providing joy), Graphic appeal (aesthetic beauty, contrast, and framing), Socioeconomic appeal (significant societal ramifications), and Intimate appeal (personal connection).

Captions and Editorial Goals

Captions (or cutlines) describe visuals and are usually written by senior sub-editors. Four types of captions are identified: Label captions identify the subject (common for mugshots); Situation captions explain action and often highlight non-obvious details; Suggestive captions capture a mood from the contents rather than literal events; and Story captions provide a lengthy news story based on the "who, what, when, where, why, and how" of the image.

Sub-editors aim for six goals in design: Order (consistent organizational style), Aesthetics (beauty through order), Balance (proportional distribution of elements), Contrast (varying shapes and sizes for visual interest), and Unity (ensuring elements do not conflict, such as avoiding clashing fonts like Bookman and Gill Sans Narrow).

Dummies and Page Make-up Forms

Design begins with a dummy, a layout sheet made of low-grammage newsprint. The dummy acts as a building plan, showing where elements will be arranged. In many organizations, the advertising/marketing department provides the initial dummy with marked spaces for ads.

Page make-up takes several forms. Horizontal form uses elements with greater width than height, often driven by banner headlines. Vertical form uses elements with greater length than width. Focus form centers the page around a dominant element like a main photo or headline to provide a "line of force." Circus form features many competing areas of attraction, often seen when multiple high-impact stories are present. Modular page make-up is a system where every story element (text, headline, photo, credit) is contained within a distinct rectangular module. If any part falls outside the rectangle, it is no longer modular. Self-containment is a key principle of modular design, meaning a module could be removed without leaving orphaned elements on the page.