Rhetoric

What is rhetoric

“Let rhetoric be defined as an ability in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle, on rhetoric 1.2.1)

Origin/History

Origins of rhetoric

Athens and sicily (471 - 463 BC)
Expulsion of the tyrants
Spike in litigations (reclaiming lands
Demokratia = new form of government (democracy)
Single magistrates dismissed
Replaced by juries of 200 to 500 citizens

Platos attack

His book Gorgias

Fictional debate between socrates and gorgias

“Rhetoric is to legislation what beautification is to gymnastics”

Rhetoric = cosmetics compared to gymnastics

“Rhetoric is to justice what cookery is to medicine”

Rhetoric = cookery compared to medicine

[Rhetoric] is not an art but a routine, because it can produce n principle in virtue of which it offers what it does… I refuse the name of art to anything [so] irrational

Hellenistic age - (323 BC - 32 BC)

Roman education = artes liberals (seven liberal arts)
Seven arts = trivium + quadrivium
Trivium = grammar, logic, rhetoric
Quadrivium = arithmetic, astronomy, music, geometry
Greek education = paideia + engkuklios (encyclic) = encyclopaedic, ‘ all-round’ education
Greek paideia = latin humanitas (the humanities)
Latin unversitas = collection of students gathered in a church or home (study the seven liberal arts)

Cicero’s rhetorics

De inventione (84 bc)

Rhetorica ad herrenium (84 bc)

De oratore (55 bc)
De partitionibus oratoriae (54bc)
De optimo genere orator (52 bc)
Brutus (46 bc)
Orator (46 bc)
Topica (44 bc)

Quintillian (40 - 96 ad)

We should not speak so that it is possible for the audience to understand us, but so that it is possible for them to misunderstand us

Rhetoric Branches

Three persuasive appeals

Ethocs (character)

“The orator persuades by moral character when [their] speech is delivered in such a manner as the render [them] worthy of confidence [and, indeed,[ moral character… the most effective means of proof.”
Doctor used in product advertising
Celebrity promotion

Pathos (emotions)

“The orator pesuades [their] hearers when they are roused to emotion by [their] speech; for the judgements we deliver are not the same when we are influenced by joy or sorrow, love or hate”
Exploitation of emotion

Logos (reasoning)

“Persuasion is also produced by the speech itself, when we establish the true or apparently true from the means of persuasion applicable to each individual subject”
Graphs, charts, data
Facts and logic

Fallacies

Fallacy -A deceptive or misleading argument, a sophism

fallacy

definition

Informal fallacies

does not have a precise definition. They are common things people say that they think support their point more than they do

“Affirming the consequent: if A then B; B; therefore, A”

Example

“I got high distinction in my exam today [A], therefore i am happy [B]” does not imply the same in reverse
“ i am feeling happy [B], therefore i must have an HD in an exam [A]”

Formal fallacies

an error in logic, resulting in the argument being not suppositionall inescapable

Formal fallacy

“I am feeling happy [b], therefore i must have got an HD in an exam [A]”
“Geese, nothing ever makes you happy these days - except when you get an HD in one of your exams”

Rhetoric Techniques

Rhetoric techniques - Rhetoric fallacy - an incorrect or misleading notion or opinion […] or invalid reasoning […] that renders an argument logically invalid

term	definition
Slippery slope	Proposes later possible consequences
Boosters and hedgers	Linguistic devices to indicate how confident writer is in claim
Ad populum	Claims something is true because many people believe in it
Ad hominem - persona related	Name calling, questioning motive, hypocrite you're not entitled to speak on that, vacillation
Weasel words	Consists of vague and misleading terminology Scientists say that Clinical studies have shown that This medicine may help with
reification	The act of changing something abstract into something real
Pragmatic fallacy	Something is true because i works Chi, ki, prana, eridians
strawman	misrepresenting someone's argument to make it look worse
Appeal to fear	Scaring someone into agreeing with you
Appeal to ridicule	Using analogies, sarcasm or absurdity to mock and argument
Hasty (or biased) generalizing)	Drawing conclusions from inadequate samples usually an error in reasoning- a fallacy of logos
False dilemma	Suggesting there are only two possible outcomes or choices when, in fact, there are other possible conclusions
Post hoc ergo propter hoc	Because a phenomenon follows an event, assuming the event caused the result
Guilt by association	Connecting a speaker or speech to other less credible speakers or speeches

Argument Structure

Argument is connected series of statements (premises) intended to give reasons for a claim (the conclusion)

Statements

Simple formal arguments

Premise
Conclusion
Suppositionally inescapable (validity)
Inescapable (soundness)
Decoupling
Common mistakes

All men are mortal - premise

Socrates is a man - premise

Therefore, socrates is mortal - conclusion

Kinds of verbiage

Claims; statements;assertions. There are either true or false
Everything else. True and false don't really apply

Syllogism - a simple argument compromised of a conclusion drawn from two given premises

Premise - if a balloon is pricked with a pin, then it will pop
Premise - the balloon popped
Conclusion - therefore the balloon was pricked with a pin

Counterexamples - a description of a scenario in which the premises of the argument are all true while the conclusion of the argument is false

Fido barks when he hears someone at the door
Fido is barking
Therefore, someone is at the door
Counterexample - no one is at the door, thunder made fido bark

Syllogism

Receiving a rose menas you are loved

I received a rose

Therefore, i am loved

Enthymeme

I received a rose

Therefor, i am loved

Deductive Arguments - a series of claims where the premises are intended to provide guaranteed proof that the conclusion is true

Suppositionally inescapable - the conclusion follows logically and inescapably from the premises

Inescapable - the argument is suppositionally inescapable and the premises are all true

Not inescapable - the argument is not suppositionally inescapable, or at least one premise is not true therefore the argument does not justify conclusion

Bob is taller than susan

Susan is taller than frankie

Therefore, bob is taller than frankie

Polysyllogism - an argument made up of a chain of syllogisms, the conclusion of each being premise of the one following, until the last one

Cats are predators. Derek is a cat. Predators eat animals. Therefore derek eats animals

	deductive	inductive
For its conclusion, intended to provide	Conclusive support	Probable support
If premises are true, conclusion follows	Suppositionally inescapable	Suppositionally solid
Premises are true and conclusion follows from them	inescapable	solid

Abduction - jumping to the best explanation, based on premises at least on of which state something as probable rather than definite

Rogeriun argumentations

Aim to find shared moral qualities and solutions

Introduce problem and a show opponents is understood
Contexts in which the opponents position valid
State your position, including contexts it is valid in
How opponent benefits by adopting your position

Minimising evidence against ones argument

The overwhelming exception

A general statement is made. But then one or more exceptions eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to believe

No true scotsman

Its a sign that the person will always make up an excuse for evidence against and/or there are too many exceptions to make the claim usefu

Toulmin’s Argument

The model has six parts:

Claim: the thesis statement or overall topic
Grounds: the evidence or data that supports the claim
Warrant: the explanation for why the evidence supports the claim
Backing: additional reasons that support the warrant
Qualifier: a word that limits how universally the claim applies
Rebuttal: an acknowledgement of an opposing view