Social Psychology Lecture Review

CHAPTER 13

Social Psychology: Overview

  • This chapter focuses on social psychology, discussing various concepts related to human behavior in social settings.

Key Concepts

  • Group Dynamics

    • Classic concepts in social psychology focus on how individuals behave in groups.

    • Topics include conformity, ostracism, social loafing, and groupthink.

Conformity

  • Definition: Change in group behavior influenced by social norms and peer pressures.

    • Purpose is to fit in with a group and avoid conflict or disapproval.

  • Types of Social Influence:

    • Normative Influence: Behavior shaped by the desire to fit in; avoiding social cost or ridicule.

    • Informational Influence: Acceptance of information from others, believing that the group must be correct.

    • Example: Agreeing with group opinions in discussions without personal conviction.

Social Loafing

  • Definition: The phenomenon where individuals exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

    • Factors contributing to social loafing include low efficacy belief, lack of care for group outcomes, and assumptions that others are not trying hard.

  • Example: Group projects wherein active members carry the workload while others contribute minimally.

Social Facilitation

  • Definition: The tendency for individuals to perform better on tasks when in the presence of others (opposite of social loafing).

  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance is enhanced by a moderate level of arousal; too much arousal can hinder performance.

Groupthink

  • Definition: A phenomenon where group members conform to a consensus opinion to minimize conflict, often leading to poor decision-making.

    • Members suppress dissenting opinions.

  • Examples include cults and organizational failures due to unanimous agreement among poorly representative groups.

Group Polarization

  • Definition: Tendency for group opinions to become more extreme than individuals' original beliefs after group discussions.

    • Often observed in social media; algorithms feed users similar content, leading to more extreme views.

Bystander Effect

  • Definition: The social psychological phenomenon wherein individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present.

    • Diffusion of Responsibility: Individual feels less responsibility to intervene when several witnesses are around.

  • Example: In a situation of a car accident, individuals may assume someone else will help, leading to no one taking action.

Altruism

  • Definition: Selfless concern for the well-being of others, which may lead to actions prioritizing others over oneself.

  • Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to help in emergencies.

Ethical Concerns in Research

  • Discussion includes classic studies such as the Stanford Prison Experiment and Milgram’s Obedience Study.

Stanford Prison Experiment

  • Conducted by Zimbardo, examining the psychological effects of perceived power in a simulated prison environment.

    • Key Findings: Revealed disturbing insights into how people conform to roles, showcasing a loss of personal accountability and moral reasoning.

    • Ethical Issues: Concerns over participant well-being and informed consent due to the extreme conditions imposed by the study.

Milgram's Obedience Study

  • Examined how far individuals would go in obeying orders to administer electric shocks to others.

    • Findings indicated a significant proportion of individuals were willing to obey authority figures even to the extent of causing harm.

    • Ethical Concerns: Participants were potentially harmed psychologically by the scenario.

Attribution Theory

  • Internal Attribution: Explaining behavior based on personal factors (e.g., character, personality).

  • External Attribution: Explaining behavior based on situational factors (e.g., role circumstances).

  • Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overemphasize internal characteristics and underestimate situational factors when judging others' behavior.

Biases in Social Perception

  • Self-Serving Bias: Tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

  • False Consensus Effect: Belief that one’s own opinions and behaviors are more common than they actually are.

  • Naive Realism: The belief that one’s perceptions of reality are accurate and that those who see things differently are misinformed or biased.

Social Norms and Ostracism

  • Ostracism: Exclusion from a group, leading to feelings of low belonging and self-worth.

    • Effects: May lead to profound emotional or psychological consequences for the ostracized individuals.

Implicit Associations and Bias

  • Implicit bias refers to attitudes and beliefs that we carry unconsciously, often resulting in discrimination without realizing.

  • Contact Hypothesis: Idea that positive social contact among individuals from different groups can reduce prejudice.

    • Practically, enhancing interactions between diverse groups is seen as necessary for reducing bias

    • Conclusion

  • The material covered reveals the complexity of social behavior, articulating how social influences shape our actions and beliefs in group settings.

  • An understanding of these concepts is critical for navigating social interactions and for the development of more inclusive and understanding communities, especially in light of social biases and the impact of media on group perceptions.

CHAPTER 14

Health Psychology

  • Studies how people’s behaviours and decisions can affect their health, survival, and overall well-being, both positively and negatively.

Smoking and Personality

  • Terracciano & Costa Jr. (2008): people with high neuroticism have a higher risk of smoking, people with high conscientiousness have a lower risk.

Media Exposure and Smoking

  • Heatherton & Sargent (2009): seeing smoking in media can predict whether adolescents are more likely to smoke.

  • It is hard to prove pure causation because other factors could also be involved.

Ways to Reduce Smoking

  • Non-smoking laws

  • Warning labels on cigarette packages

  • Attitude inoculation, which means helping people resist persuasion before they are exposed to pressure

Obesity

  • Obesity is described as an unsolved problem.

  • Eating is a motivated behaviour, meaning people eat for different reasons, not just hunger.

  • Main causes mentioned: food abundance and sedentary lifestyles.

Obesity as a Global Problem

  • About 24% of Canadians are classified as obese.

What Should We Be Eating?

  • A lot of nutrition research is correlational, so it does not always prove cause and effect.

  • Be careful with media reports about nutrition.

  • Randomized controlled trials are usually stronger evidence.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

  • BMI is used to measure body weight in relation to height.

  • It is commonly used to classify whether someone is underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese.
    General Adaptation Syndrome

  • Definition: The physiological response to stress, which encompasses three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Stress and Cognition

  • Key Concept: Stressful thoughts occupy working memory and interfere with mental performance.

  • Cortisol Response:

    • Males generally exhibit a greater cortisol response to stress compared to females.

    • Stress impacts information processing capabilities, impairing our ability to think clearly, store information, and be present.

Effects of Stress on the Brain

  • Increased activity and connectivity in:

    • Amygdala:

    • Functions: Emotion regulation, primarily fear and threat recognition.

    • Increased activity during stress heightens emotional responses.

    • Structural Changes:

    • Hippocampus:

      • Functions: Memory storage and learning.

      • Structural changes involve reduced dendritic branching and decreased neurogenesis (the formation of new neurons).

    • Prefrontal Cortex:

      • Functions: Decision-making, problem-solving, planning.

      • Stress adversely affects these higher cognitive functions.

Trauma and Heritability

  • Transgenerational Stress Inheritance:

    • Concept: The passing down of stress-induced traits through epigenetic mechanisms.

    • Example: Descendants of Holocaust survivors or individuals with PTSD may have a heightened risk for mental health conditions.

Epigenetics

  • Definition: Epigenetics studies the relationship between genetics and the environment.

  • Explanation: Environmental factors can influence gene expression, affecting conditions like PTSD and schizophrenia even if a predisposition exists in one's genetic code.

Importance of Relationships in Stress Moderation

  • Oxytocin: Known as the "love hormone," plays a role in social bonding and its relationship to stress.

  • Vasopressin: Similar role in social behaviors and bonding.

  • Social Support:

    • Offers a buffering effect against stress.

    • Oxytocin inhibition of the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis, which regulates cortisol release.

Psychoneuroimmunology

  • Definition: The study of the interaction between psychological processes and the nervous and immune systems of the body.

  • Health Impact: Prolonged stress can lower the immune system's effectiveness, causing increased susceptibility to illnesses, especially during stressors like exam periods.

Stress Effects on Health

  • Cortisol Effects: Chronic cortisol presence leads to adverse health effects including impacted immunity, digestion, and exacerbation of health issues such as cancer.

  • Pessimistic Explanatory Style:

    • Definition: A tendency to interpret negative events as internally caused, pervasive, and permanent.

    • Associated with negative health outcomes.

The Nun Study

  • Findings: Positive nuns lived significantly longer than their more pessimistic counterparts, illustrating the link between positive emotions and health outcomes.

Coping Strategies for Stress

  • Definition: Processes used to manage stress can be categorized into:

    • Active vs. Passive Coping

    • Problem-Focused Coping: Involves tackling the problem directly (e.g., seeking solutions).

    • Emotion-Focused Coping: Involves managing feelings related to the situation (e.g., seeking emotional support).

Positive Emotions and Recovery

  • Improved efficiency in recovery from stress-induced cardiovascular arousal when in a more positive emotional state.

  • Engagement in positive emotional experiences can stabilize heart rate and blood pressure leading to quicker recovery.

Psychological Strategies for Control During Stress

  • Learned Helplessness:

    • Definition: The developed belief that actions cannot affect outcomes, leading to general apathy towards stressual challenges.

    • Results in a cycle of avoidance and inaction when faced with stressors.

Superstitions and Conspiracy Theories

  • Response to a lack of control in one’s environment may lead individuals to adopt superstitions or conspiracy theories as coping mechanisms to restore sense of order.

Key Terms to Remember for Stress and Health Interactions

  • Significant Terms:

    • Oxytocin, Vasopressin, HPA axis, General Adaptation Syndrome, Transgenerational Stress, Epigenetics, Learned Helplessness.

    • Coping Strategies: Problem-focused & Emotion-focused, Active & Passive.

    • Concepts: Psychoneuroimmunology, Social Support, Positive Emotions

Final Thoughts

  • Focus on understanding these concepts as they are often connected in assessments, especially concerning stress management and its biological and environmental influences.

  • Maintaining awareness of definitions and mechanisms discussed will be pivotal for future applications in behavioral and health psychology.

chapter 15

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🧠 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

Definition

  • Studies how behaviours + decisions affect health, survival, and well-being

  • Includes both positive behaviours (exercise) and negative behaviours (smoking)

SMOKING

Personality & Smoking (Terracciano & Costa, 2008)

  • High neuroticism → higher smoking risk (more stress/emotional instability)

  • High conscientiousness → lower risk (more self-control, planning)

Media Influence (Heatherton & Sargent, 2009)

  • Seeing smoking in media → increases likelihood of smoking (especially teens)

  • BUT → correlation ≠ causation

Reducing Smoking

  • Laws (no smoking areas)

  • Warning labels

  • Attitude inoculation → teaching resistance to peer pressure BEFORE exposure

OBESITY

Key Causes

  • Eating = motivated behaviour (not just hunger → emotions, habits)

  • Food abundance (easy access)

  • Sedentary lifestyle (less movement)

Important Stat

  • ~24% of Canadians are obese

Nutrition Research

  • Many studies are correlational → be careful

  • Randomized controlled trials = strongest evidence

BMI (Body Mass Index)

  • Weight relative to height

  • Used to classify: underweight, normal, overweight, obese

  • Limitation: doesn’t consider muscle vs fat

🧠 ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

MODELS

Medical Model

  • Mental illness = biological disease

  • Focus: brain, genetics, neurotransmitters

  • Treatment: medication

Biopsychosocial Model (MOST IMPORTANT)

  • Combines:

    • Biological

    • Psychological

    • Social

  • Key idea: disorders = interaction of all 3

WHAT IS “ABNORMAL”?

Maladaptive Behaviour

  • Causes distress

  • Interferes with daily life

  • Increases risk (harm, legal issues)

DSM (Diagnosis)

  • Used to diagnose disorders

  • Includes: symptoms, causes, prognosis

Problems (TEST THIS)

  • Subjective

  • No clear biological tests

  • Categories not always clear

  • Overdiagnosis

🏷 POWER OF LABELS

Pros

  • Helps diagnosis + treatment

  • Standard language

Cons (VERY TESTED)

  • Stigma

  • Bias/discrimination

  • Self-fulfilling prophecy

ROSENHAN STUDY

  • Fake patients admitted → acted normal → still labeled “insane”

  • Shows: labels change how people are seen

INSANITY (LAW)

  • Cannot tell right vs wrong

  • Not criminally responsible

MYTH OF VIOLENCE

  • Mental illness ≠ dangerous

  • Violence more linked to substance abuse

  • Media → availability heuristic

🧠 SCHIZOPHRENIA

CORE FEATURES

  • Breakdown in:

    • Thought

    • Emotion

    • Behaviour

  • Issues with attention + memory

SYMPTOMS

Positive (added behaviours)

  • Hallucinations (false perceptions)

  • Delusions (false beliefs)

  • Disorganized thinking/speech

  • Inappropriate affect

Negative (missing behaviours)

  • Flat affect

  • Poverty of speech

  • Lack of motivation

PHASES

  • Prodromal → early signs (withdrawal, confusion)

  • Active → hallucinations, delusions

  • Residual → reduced symptoms but still impaired

BRAIN CHANGES

  • ↓ frontal lobe activity

  • Enlarged ventricles (brain loss)

  • Progressive deterioration

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

  • Dopamine ↑ → positive symptoms

  • Glutamate issues → negative symptoms

GENETICS

  • Identical twin: 25–50% chance

  • Not 100% → environment matters

  • ~10% have genetic risk

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

  • Prenatal stress/infection

  • Marijuana use

  • Head injury

  • Stressful upbringing

  • Supportive family ↓ relapse

NEURODEVELOPMENTAL HYPOTHESIS

  • Brain issues early in life

  • Symptoms appear in early adulthood

😔 DEPRESSION (BIOLOGY)

BRAIN CHANGES

  • Cell loss in frontal lobes + amygdala

  • Amygdala overactive → stronger negative emotions

  • Hippocampus damaged → memory issues

FUNCTION CHANGES

Anhedonia

  • Loss of pleasure

  • Linked to nucleus accumbens

Rumination

  • Constant negative thinking

  • Linked to prefrontal cortex

COMORBIDITY

  • Depression often occurs with:

    • Anxiety disorders

    • Other mental disorders

🧬 GENETICS + ENVIRONMENT (DEPRESSION)

Genetics

  • Twin studies show genetic risk

Environment

  • Low socioeconomic status → higher risk

  • Stressful life events

DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL (VERY IMPORTANT)

  • People have genetic vulnerability (diathesis)

  • Disorder develops when combined with stress

  • More vulnerability = less stress needed

🌗 BIPOLAR DISORDER

Definition

  • Extreme mood swings

Mania (HIGH)

  • High energy

  • Risky behaviour

  • Poor judgment

Depression (LOW)

  • Low mood

  • Low energy

  • Episodes vary in length + intensity

🧠 PERSONALITY DISORDERS

Definition

  • Long-term, rigid behaviour patterns

  • Cause distress + impairment

CLUSTERS

Cluster A (Odd)

  • Paranoid → distrust

  • Schizoid → no interest in relationships

  • Schizotypal → weird beliefs/perceptions

Cluster B (Dramatic)

  • Borderline → unstable emotions/relationships

  • Narcissistic → self-importance, low empathy

  • Histrionic → attention-seeking

  • Antisocial → lack of empathy, harmful behaviour

Cluster C (Anxious)

  • Avoidant → fear of rejection

  • Dependent → needs others

  • OCPD → perfectionism, control

🧠 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS

Definition

  • Disruptions in memory, identity, awareness

DID

  • Multiple personalities

  • Possibly trauma-related

  • Controversial (may be therapist-influenced)

😰 ANXIETY DISORDERS

Definition

  • Excessive, irrational fear

GAD

  • Constant worry

  • Hard to control

  • Not specific to one thing

⚠ KEY CONNECTIONS (THIS IS WHAT GETS TESTED)

  • Biopsychosocial model → applies to EVERYTHING

  • Diathesis-stress → genetics + environment interaction

  • Dopamine = positive schizophrenia symptoms

  • Labels → stigma + Rosenhan study

  • Correlation ≠ causation (health psych + media)

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chapter 16

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🧠 CHAPTER 16 – FINAL MASTER NOTES (ALL OF IT)

🔹 BEHAVIOURAL THERAPIES (finish)

Types:

1. Systematic desensitization

  • gradual exposure

  • slow + controlled

2. Flooding

  • immediate full exposure

  • intense

👉 exam tip:

  • desensitization = gradual

  • flooding = all at once

Virtual Reality Exposure:

  • uses VR to simulate fears

  • used for PTSD

🔹 COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY (CBT)

What it does:

→ changes thoughts + behaviours

Core idea:

Situation → Thought → Emotion → Behaviour

👉 change the thought = change everything

Techniques:

  • cognitive restructuring (fix negative thoughts)

  • stress inoculation (prepare for stress)

Mindfulness-based CBT:

  • combines CBT + meditation

  • focus on present

  • observe thoughts (don’t judge)

🔹 BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES

Drug therapy = psychopharmacology

🔸 TYPES OF DRUGS

1. Mood stabilizers

  • treat bipolar disorder

  • example: lithium

👉 reduces manic episodes

2. Antianxiety drugs

  • reduce anxiety

  • increase GABA

⚠ short-term only (addictive)

3. Antipsychotic drugs

  • treat schizophrenia

First generation:

  • block dopamine

  • side effects: tardive dyskinesia (uncontrollable movements)

Second generation:

  • affect dopamine + serotonin

  • fewer side effects

👉 SUPER IMPORTANT:

  • dopamine blocked → ↓ hallucinations

4. Antidepressants

Monoamine theory:

→ depression = low serotonin / norepinephrine

Types:

  • MAOIs → block breakdown of neurotransmitters

  • Tricyclics → block reuptake

  • SSRIs → block serotonin reuptake (most common)

Key facts:

  • take weeks to work

  • increase receptor sensitivity

Brain effects:

  • increase BDNF

  • help brain growth + learning

🔹 ARE DRUGS A CURE?

→ NO

  • symptoms return if stopped

  • best when combined with therapy

🔹 EVALUATING THERAPIES

  • CBT + meds = most effective

  • exercise can help (endorphins + BDNF)

🔹 COMBINING THERAPIES

→ BEST APPROACH

  • tailored to person

  • therapy + medication together

🔹 SURGICAL METHODS

Early:

  • lobotomy (REMOVED – very harmful)

Modern:

  • targeted brain areas

  • only for severe cases

🔹 TECHNOLOGICAL METHODS

1. ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy)

  • electric current → seizure

  • used for severe depression

⚠ side effects: memory loss

2. rTMS

  • magnetic stimulation

  • non-invasive

  • used for depression

3. DBS (Deep Brain Stimulation)

  • electrodes in brain

  • severe cases only

🔹 OTHER THERAPIES

Bibliotherapy

  • self-help books

  • low cost

MDMA-assisted therapy

  • helps PTSD

  • increases openness + trust

🔹 MENTAL HEALTH SYSTEM

Providers:

Psychiatrists

  • medical doctors

  • prescribe meds

Psychologists

  • therapy

  • no meds

Residential treatment:

  • live-in care

  • structured environment

Community psychology:

  • focuses on prevention

  • education + awareness

🔹 EVIDENCE-BASED THERAPY

→ must be scientifically tested

👉 NOT just “feels helpful”

Memorize these:

  • positive vs negative symptoms

  • dopamine = schizophrenia

  • therapeutic alliance = BEST predictor

  • CBT = thoughts → emotions → behaviour

  • SSRIs = most common antidepressants

  • exposure therapy types

  • meds ≠ cure

  • combining treatments = best