Intro to Sociology – Midterm Exam 1 Study Guide
Topic 1: The Sociological Project/Imagination
Key Terms:
Sociology: The study of social behavior, society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture.
Sociological imagination: A term coined by C. Wright Mills, referring to the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and larger social forces.
Social institution: Structures and mechanisms of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of individuals within a given human collectivity. Example: Education system.
Social identity: A person's sense of who they are based on their group memberships. Example: Being part of a cultural or religious community.
Historical materialism: A methodology used by Marx and others, emphasizing material conditions as the basis for societal development and social change.
Double consciousness: A concept by W.E.B. Du Bois describing the internal conflict experienced by marginalized groups, particularly African Americans, who see themselves through both their own perspective and the perspective of a dominant culture.
Interpretive sociology: An approach that focuses on understanding the meaning individuals attach to their actions.
Midrange theory: A sociological theory that attempts to bridge the gap between grand theories and empirical research.
Positivist sociology: Focuses on observable phenomena and relies on scientific methods to study society.
Verstehen: Understanding; a method of interpretation used in sociology that emphasizes empathy in understanding social phenomena.
Microsociology: The study of individual or small group interactions within a larger social context.
Macrosociology: The study of large-scale social processes and structures.
Key Names:
Auguste Comte: Known as the father of sociology, he emphasized the use of empirical data and scientific methods for studying society.
Max Weber: Introduced concepts such as verstehen and described the influence of bureaucracy and economy on society.
Emile Durkheim: Focused on social order, collective consciousness, and the role of social structures in shaping freedoms.
Georg Simmel: Known for his work on social interaction and the effects of social forms on individual behavior.
W.E.B. Du Bois: Focused on race relations and social justice, known for the concept of double consciousness.
Harriet Martineau: Introduced feminist perspectives in sociology, advocating for women's rights and social reform.
Text Review Questions:
Define social institution and social identity, and give an example:
Social Institution: Structures that fulfill essential functions in society (e.g., family, education).
Social Identity: The identity through groups; for example, a member of a religious community.
Compare functionalism and conflict theory regarding education:
Functionalism: Views education as a mechanism for social integration and stabilizing society.
Conflict Theory: Considers education as a tool for perpetuating social inequality and reinforcing power structures.
What is feminist theory and Martineau's contributions?:
Feminist Theory: Analyzes the role of gender in social structures and advocates for women's rights.
Harriet Martineau was a pioneer of feminist sociology, emphasizing women's perspectives and roles in society.
Differences between sociology, history, and psychology:
Sociology: Focuses on groups and societal norms.
History: Studies past events without the analytical lens of social structures.
Psychology: Examines individual behavior and mental processes.
What is Anomie according to Durkheim?:
Anomie: A state of normlessness in society, which Durkheim believed results from rapid social changes leading to disintegration of social ties and increased suicide rates.
Lecture Review Questions:
Fundamental problem classic European sociology addresses: The impact of rapid social change and modernity on society.
Two key concepts of the sociological project: Social structure and social change.
Peter Berger's statement: Sociology challenges societal norms and conventional wisdom.
Impact of the French and industrial revolutions: They highlighted new social problems, necessitating sociological inquiry.
Three dimensions of theoretical approaches: Macro vs. micro perspectives, qualitative vs. quantitative methods, and various focuses such as conflict, function, and interaction.
Fundamental questions from theoretical schools:
Functionalism: What functions do social institutions serve?
Conflict Theory: Who holds power, and how is it distributed?
Symbolic Interactionism: How do individuals create and interpret meaning?
Rational Choice: Why do individuals make specific choices?
Topic 2: Theory and Research Methods
Key Terms:
Causality: The relationship between cause and effect.
Independent variable: The variable manipulated in experiments.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
Qualitative methods: Research methods that collect non-numerical data.
Quantitative methods: Research methods that collect numerical data.
Operationalization: The process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors.
Deductive approach: Starts with a theory and tests hypotheses.
Inductive approach: Begins with observations to form a theory.
Informed consent: Ethical requirement for participants to understand and voluntarily agree to participate in research.
Correlation: A measure indicating the extent to which two variables change together.
Dependent variable: The variable affected by the independent variable.
Public sociology: Engagement in sociology to address social problems openly and collaboratively.
Text Review Questions:
Define causality and its three necessary factors:
Causality: A relationship where a change in one variable results in a change in another. Factors include:
Correlation: Both variables must change together.
Temporal precedence: The cause must precede the effect.
Non-spuriousness: The relationship cannot be explained by another factor.
Deductive vs. Inductive approach example: This sociologist observes welfare recipients, indicating an inductive approach. The deductive approach would involve starting with a theory about work-seeking behaviors and testing it.
Describe the survey method: Surveys involve gathering data from respondents, strengths include large sample sizes and generalizable data, while a concern is potential bias in responses.
Importance of participant observation: Though demanding, it's valuable for gaining insights into social contexts from within the groups studied.
Institutional review boards’ role: Ensure ethical treatment of research participants, including adherence to informed consent and voluntary participation guidelines.
Lecture Review Questions:
What makes a science of society possible?: The systematic study of social patterns using empirical methods.
Challenges to a sociological perspective: Prejudices, personal biases, and the complexity of social interactions complicate objectivity.
Primary research methods: Surveys, experiments, participant observations, and content analyses.
Sources for research ideas: Personal experiences, literature review, societal issues, and observational findings.
Trade-offs of qualitative vs. quantitative data: Qualitative data provides depth but is harder to generalize; quantitative is easier to analyze but may lack contextual richness.
Similarity between analytical forms: Both seek to explain social phenomena, albeit through different methodologies.
Research ethics questions: Focus on the potential harm to participants, consent, and privacy issues.
Topic 3: Culture and Socialization
Key Terms:
Culture: The shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a group.
Values: Core principles that guide our behavior.
Material culture: Physical objects and artifacts that represent a culture.
Nonmaterial culture: Intangible aspects of a culture such as beliefs, values, and norms.
Reflection theory: The idea that culture reflects the social structures and relationships within society.
Ideology: A set of beliefs that justify the interests of a particular group.
Hegemony: The dominance of one group over another, often through cultural means.
Cultural relativism: The practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than viewing it through the lens of another culture.
Subculture: A group within a larger culture that has distinct values or norms.
Cultural scripts/repertoires: Predefined ways of thinking and behaving within specific cultural contexts.
Cultural Capital: The non-financial social assets that promote social mobility.
Frames: Structures of meaning that enable individuals to understand and give significance to particular situations.
Symbolic Boundaries: The distinctions that people make in order to categorize experiences, people, and objects.
Socialization: The lifelong process of learning social norms and values.
Rituals: Formalized actions or behaviors performed in a specific context.
Self: The individual’s experience of their identity.
Generalized other: A concept by George Herbert Mead that represents an internalized sense of the expectations of society.
Key Names:
Charles Horton Cooley: Developed the concept of the looking-glass self.
George Herbert Mead: Focused on how social interactions develop self and identity.
Robert Merton: Contributed with role theory and understanding of social roles.
Text Review Questions:
Define subcultures and give examples: Subcultures are groups that have norms differing from the broader culture. Examples could include a niche music scene (e.g., goths) and sports fans (e.g., fans of a specific team not included in the mainstream culture).
Example of hegemony in action: A student embodies the belief in educational mobility, thus adhering to rigorous study routines rooted in broader societal values.
Socialization Text Review Questions:
Primary agents of socialization: Family, peers, educational institutions, media, and religious organizations.
Cooley's looking-glass self: Our self-concept is shaped by how we perceive others see us, with three stages: imagining how we appear to others, imagining their judgment, and developing one’s self through these judgments.
Mead's generalized other: The societal norms and values that guide behavior. Affects daily behavior as individuals align actions with societal expectations.
Role conflict vs. role strain: Role conflict occurs when the expectations of two roles clash (e.g., being a student and parent). Role strain arises when there are conflicting demands within one role (e.g., being a student with multiple responsibilities).
Lecture Review Questions:
Three achievements through socialization: Development of self-concept, understanding norms, and acquisition of language/communication skills.
Spitz orphanage study findings: Highlights the critical need for social interaction in early childhood development.
Mead’s self inquiry: Examining how individuals perceive their identity in relation to societal norms.
Stages of self-development according to Mead:
Preparatory stage: Imitation of others.
Play stage: Role-taking in specific contexts.
Game stage: Understanding rules and multiple roles in group settings.
Culture vs. social structure: Culture refers to shared beliefs and practices; social structure encompasses organized patterns of social relationships.
Types of norms:
Folkways: Informal norms; casual behaviors (e.g. etiquette).
Mores: Norms of morality (e.g. laws against theft).
Taboos: Strong prohibitions (e.g. incest).
Different perspectives on culture: Functionalist view emphasizes social stability, while conflict theory emphasizes power dynamics.
Topic 4: Social Structure 1 - Groups and Networks
Key Terms:
Dyad: A group of two individuals.
Triad: A group of three individuals.
Tertius gaudens: A third party that benefits from discord between two parties.
Robbers Cave Experiment: A study that demonstrated the effects of group identity and conflict.
Divide et impera: A strategy where one party attempts to split two others to maintain control.
Primary Groups: Groups characterized by close, personal, and enduring relationships (e.g., family).
Secondary Groups: Larger, less personal groups, often organized around specific goals (e.g., coworkers).
Reference Groups: Groups used as a standard for self-evaluation.
Social Network: A web of social relationships, connections, and ties.
Six degrees of separation: The theory that any two people are six or fewer social connections apart.
Social Capital: The networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society.
Key Names:
Georg Simmel: Explored the nature of social groups and patterns of interaction.
Robert Putnam: Investigated the implications of social connections on civic engagement.
Text Review Questions:
Example of relations in a triad: In Peggy and Tom's new family, Peggy can serve as a mediator. Tom's simple closeness to Sarah can exemplify a tertius gaudens. If Tom tries to ignore Sarah's feelings to align with Peggy, he exemplifies divide et impera.
Cooley on groups: Primary groups are intimate (e.g., family), while secondary groups are task-oriented (e.g., classmates).
Reference groups influence: Comparison to colleagues can impact self-esteem and career aspirations; comparing oneself to peers can affect one's confidence.
Granovetter's strength of weak ties: Weak ties can provide unique access to information and opportunities; they often connect individuals to different social networks.
Institutional isomorphism example: The competition among coffee shops leading to standard offerings reflects how organizations imitate successful practices.
Putnam’s Bowling Alone thesis: Social capital has decreased over time, leading to a decline in community involvement and civic engagement.
No cycles of four rule explanation: This rule refers to dynamics in romantic relationships, highlighting limits in social networks; a finding in relationship studies indicates that interactions form limitations on direct connections.
Lecture Review Questions:
Definition of social structures: The organized patterns of relationships and institutions within a society.
Four characteristics of a group: Shared goals, common interests, interaction, and a structure of roles.
Entitativity concept: The degree to which a group is perceived as a cohesive entity, shaped by similarity, proximity, and interaction.
Decision-making leaders: Instrumental leaders focus on task completion; expressive leaders focus on maintaining group morale and relationships.
Discontinuity effect factors: Group competitiveness may exceed individual competitiveness due to perceived group identity and stresses of group dynamics.
Complete vs. local network perspectives: Complete focuses on the inner workings of the total network; local examines the individual relationships and their immediate implications.
Elements of social networks: Nodes (individuals) and ties (connections between them).
Paradoxes in social networks: Researchers identify contradictions, such as individuals' power in networks versus their individual agency, often fluctuating based on context.
Topic 5: Social Structure 2 - Organizations
Key Terms:
Institutional isomorphism: The process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions.
Formal organization: An organization with a formal structure and clearly defined roles.
Organizational culture: The shared values, beliefs, and behaviors within an organization.
Organizational structure: The way in which the tasks of an organization are divided, organized, and coordinated.
Corporate actor vs natural person: Distinction between organizations as entities and individual human beings.
Key Names:
James Coleman: Noteworthy for contributions to understanding social systems and their implication for individual behavior.
Lecture/Coleman Reading Review Questions:
Social consequences of corporate actors' rise: Companies can influence social relationships and norms in powerful ways, often wielding more power than some governments.
Coleman's asymmetric relations: Natural persons do not have the same level of agency as corporate actors, leading to imbalances in accountability.
Types of risks identified by Coleman:
Financial risks: Costs incurred by natural persons due to corporate decisions.
Health risks: Potential dangers posed by corporate practices (e.g., pollution).
Social risks: Changes in community dynamics resulting from large corporate presence.
Legal risks: Individuals may face challenges when trying to navigate corporate policies or claims.
Corporate features challenging control: Complexity, bureaucracy, and legal protections of corporations often shield them from accountability compared to individuals.
Topic 6: Social Structure 3 - Situations
Key Terms:
Emotional Energy: A key aspect in social interactions, shaping responses and engagement.
Interaction ritual: Patterns of interactions that form the basis of social connections.
Ethnomethodology: The study of how people make sense of their everyday lives.
Entrainment: Synchronization of social rhythms and actions.
Dramaturgy: Goffman's perspective that likens social life to theater, emphasizing role-playing and performances in social contexts.
Key Names:
Erving Goffman: His work on dramaturgy explores the boundaries between self-presentation and social perceiving.
Randall Collins: Investigated the dynamics of interaction rituals in shaping social structures.
Lecture/Collins Reading Review Questions:
Awkwardness of segregated audiences: Goffman suggests mixing different social circles can alter individuals’ presentations, creating discomfort due to role conflict.
Team challenges in performance: Issues arise from misalignment of focus, different styles, and personal conflicts.
Idealized image presentations: Driven by social expectations and the desire to be viewed positively by others.
Importance of co-presence: Physical proximity fosters interaction and affirms emotional connections in rituals.
Social interaction ritual ingredients: Shared focus, emotional engagement, and communal reinforcement from attendees enhance the efficacy of interactions.
Topic 7: Social Control and Deviance
Key Terms:
Social deviance: Actions or behaviors that violate societal norms.
Labelling theory: A theory suggesting that society creates deviance through labels that it applies to certain groups.
Informal deviance: Non-conforming behavior that is not formally sanctioned.
Formal deviance: Deviance that violates formal laws.
Social cohesion: The bonds that bring individuals together in society.
Stigma: A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance or quality.
Mechanical solidarity: A type of social cohesion based on shared beliefs and values.
Organic solidarity: A type of social cohesion based on interdependence and specialized roles.
Differential opportunity: The idea that not everyone has the same opportunities for success and navigating society.
Social control: Mechanisms that regulate individual behavior and maintain social order.
Deterrence theory: Focuses on preventing deviant behavior through threats of punishment.
Strain theory: Explains deviance as a result of a disconnect between goals and means.
Moral Entrepreneur: Individuals or groups that seek to change norms and laws based on moral values.
Text Review Questions:
Mechanical vs. organic solidarity: Mechanical solidarity holds individuals together in figures of similarity (e.g., small, homogenous communities), while organic solidarity promotes cohesion among different individuals who rely on each other (e.g., modern societies).
Durkheim's types of suicide: Identified egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic suicide related to social integration and regulation.
Strain theory and student behavior: Explained as the individual seeking success but cheating represents a coping mechanism (e.g., innovation type).
Assumptions behind deterrence theory: Assumes people weigh risks before committing a crime. Unintended outcomes include increased criminality in marginalized populations due to over-policing.
Fraternity house as a total institution: It regulates all aspects of life and socializes members through strict norms and behaviors.
Lecture Review Questions:
Erikson on the necessity of deviance: Argues that deviance clarifies norms and fosters unity among lawful members.
Three of Erikson's propositions: Deviance serves societal functions, promotes group cohesion, and influences social integration.
Moral panics: Societal reactions to perceived threats that overdramatize deviance, often linked to Erikson's assertions about social regulation.
Biological, psychological, and sociological theories of deviance: Biological focuses on genetic predispositions; psychological examines mental health; sociological looks at external social factors.
Social control theory: Alters focus away from why individuals deviate to what prevents them from doing so, emphasizing bonds to society.
Four elements of the social bond: Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief, explored in pathways to crime desistance.
Impact of successful marriages and certain jobs: These create stability which can deter engagement in criminal activities because they offer social support and identity.