Transcendentalism and the Age of Individualism
Defining the American Republic & Westward Expansion
Recap: Previous discussions focused on defining American identity, the status of enslaved people, and early republic policies.
Continuing Disagreements: Ongoing debates persist regarding national identity and social structure.
Physical Expansion: America continues to expand geographically.
Conflicts with British: Ongoing tensions with the British, who were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars (led by Napoleon, who sold the Louisiana Territory to Thomas Jefferson to fund military campaigns).
US Neutrality: The US aimed to remain neutral in the conflict between England and France.
British Impressment: British seizure of American ships delivering goods to France and the French West Indies forced the US to consider choosing sides. Historically, the US prefers selling to both sides until forced to pick one.
Native American Support: British support for Western Indian tribes attacking frontier areas further dismayed Americans.
Declaration of War: President James Madison (after Jefferson) asked Congress to declare war against the British in June , which was approved as required by the Constitution.
The War of
Nature of the War: Described as potentially the "stupidest" US war due to minimal changes and unresolved issues.
Unresolved Issues: Impressment (British seizure of ships) was not addressed.
Boundaries: No redraw of geographical boundaries occurred.
Impact on Native Americans: The war was "really, really bad" for Native American groups.
Ideological Impact: Despite its practical failings, the war temporarily fostered a sense of national ideological unity, overcoming prior divisions, though this unity was not permanent.
**Key Events & Outcomes:
British Actions: Terrorized coastal areas, invaded Chesapeake Bay, set fire to the US Capitol Building (joked about occurring right after Dolly Madison's decorating).
Canadian Invasion: American attempts to invade Canada failed.
Battle of New Orleans: The most significant American victory, where Americans defeated twice as many British soldiers. Notably, this battle occurred after the peace treaty had been signed, highlighting a communication delay.
Limited Consequences, Boosted Morale: While the war had few direct consequences and didn't resolve impressment, it gave a significant boost to national morale, fostering a sense of having "finally beat the British."
British Perception: The war helped convince the British government to cease viewing America as a colony, akin to a nation's "early adolescence" or quest for independence from parents.
Andrew Jackson's Rise: The war made Andrew Jackson a national hero.
Andrew Jackson and the Age of Individualism
Historian's Bias: The instructor expresses a strong personal dislike for Andrew Jackson, labeling him "Mister Trail of Tears" and a "super asshole."
New Political Leadership: Jackson represented a different type of political leader compared to revolutionary-era figures.
Old Leaders: Emphasized education, experience, upbringing (Federalist "filtration" idea: national interest filtered through the "best people").
Jackson's Persona: Presented himself as a "common man," earning the nickname "Old Hickory." This was a strategic political move, making him appear relatable regardless of full accuracy.
Jackson's Background: Fought in the Revolutionary War, ran a law practice, served as Attorney General for Tennessee, state representative, senator, and major general in the War of (though the instructor notes his election was after the war was effectively over).
**Presidential Campaigns:
First Attempt: Lost to John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams).
Campaign Slogan: "Adams can write, Jackson can fight," summarizing their differing public images.
Second Attempt (Victory): Won the election four years later by a landslide.
Inauguration: His inauguration was a symbolic gesture, inviting "everyone" to the White House. Unlike previous small, polite ceremonies, this was described as a "kegger on the White House lawn." Furnishings were nearly destroyed by the "rowdy crowd," but people felt represented.
Age of Individualism/Common Man: This period, also called the Jacksonian era, features a convergence of factors across society promoting self-determination.
Jacksonian Democrats: Jackson's followers aligned with Jefferson's ideal of the "small, young, 'far hart'" (freeholder, independent farmer) as honest, industrious, and patriotic.
Changing World: Rapid industrial advancements made the small, self-sufficient farmer increasingly less viable.
Industrial Society and Inventions
Beginning of Industrial Society: The era saw significant technological advancements, rendering small-scale farming less competitive.
**Key Inventions and their Impact:
Steamboat (Robert Fulton):
Appeared in , commercially used by .
Revolutionized river travel by allowing upstream navigation, stimulating internal trade and urban growth.
Steam-Powered Printing Press:
Revolutionized publishing around .
Allowed printing tens of thousands of pages daily.
First US steam press built in . (Instructor humorously notes the danger and enjoyment of such machines).
National Road:
Completed to West Virginia by , an early ancestor of the highway system.
Initially gravel, vastly improved transport; eventually extended to Illinois.
Erie Canal:
Completed in , running miles from Albany to Buffalo, NY.
Significantly eased transport of goods, opening up New York State to coastal markets by reducing time and cost.
Steam-Powered Locomotive ("Iron Horse"):
The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (established ) was the first chartered for both freight and passenger service.
Intended to compete with the Erie Canal, driving continuous improvements in both.
Additional Advancements: McCormick Reaper, Samuel Morse's telegraph.
Economic Boom: Commerce boomed, leading to growth of factories (textile and cotton mills employing women in the North) and plantations (South).
Connection to Individualism: These inventions empowered individuals to accomplish more on their own, reinforcing the idea that "we could do this too!" Advancements fostered greater national connection and made the federal government feel more relevant.
Romanticism
Cultural Parallel: These events coincided with the rise of Romanticism in American cultural life.
Nature of Movement: Not about romantic love, but a reaction/commentary on the Enlightenment's perceived excessive rationality (e.g., the efficiency of the guillotine).
European Origins: Began in early s Europe as a reaction against extreme reason.
British Poets: William Blake, Keats emphasized the importance of feelings in interpreting the world, not just reason.
Artistic Manifestation:
Period: European and American movement from approximately to .
Characteristics: Not a single style, but emphasized imaginative, subjective painting, often drawing inspiration from the "rugged wilderness" of the Northeast US.
Themes: Contemplative landscapes, meditation in nature, the idea that lessons from nature could be intuitively understood by everyone, making it democratic and individualistic.
Focus: The individual's personal response, connection to nature, and emotion rather than the group.
**Examples in Art:
"The Oxbow" (Thomas Cole): Depicts both untamed wilderness and pastoral settlement, emphasizing the national landscape's possibilities and mystical qualities. Dark, moody wilderness contrasted with light on farms, evoking awe. Man is present but very small, highlighting nature's grandeur.
"Kindred Spirits" ( - Asher B. Durand): Shows artist Thomas Cole and poet William Cullen Bryant in the Catskill Mountains. Focuses on the contemplation of nature and the human role within it. The eye is guided through the scene, following circles, seeking light.
Second Great Awakening
Shift in Religion: Organized religion also gave more responsibility to the individual, emphasizing personal responsibility for salvation.
First Great Awakening (Mid-s): An earlier period of religious revivalism (Benjamin Franklin was amazed by the preaching styles).
Second Great Awakening (Early s - s): A much larger religious revival characterized by emotional, personal, and evangelical practices.
Preaching Style: Hellfire and brimstone preachers were popular, contrasting with dry Puritan services.
Core Message: "Duty of men to repent, believe, and obey the gospel."
Connection to Jacksonian Era: Reinforced self-will and self-governance, aligning with Jacksonian ideals.
Societal Impact: Spurred numerous social reform movements.
**Legacies of Puritanism:
New Lights: Revivalists, evangelical, mostly rural, emphasized emotion.
Old Lights: Emphasized rationality over emotion, predominantly urban (e.g., Boston).
Unitarianism (Around ):
Perfect Enlightenment religion, rational but still Christian (believed in Christ and miracles, but subjected to rational tests).
Religion of the well-educated elite, with ministers often trained at Harvard.
Transcendentalism
Reaction to Unitarianism: Ralph Waldo Emerson, a fifth-generation minister, found traditional Unitarianism "corpse cold" and too rational, lacking life. He sought to invigorate religion.
Definition: Notoriously hard to define, it is an individualist philosophy that values intuition, individual insight, feelings, and nature as evidence of God. It's a rebellion against rational thinking, valuing the individual over society, and believing lessons from nature are universally intuitable.
**Ralph Waldo Emerson:
Role: Well-known essayist and lecturer.
"Nature" Essay: Lays out many transcendental thoughts.
"Self-Reliance" Essay: Further emphasizes the importance of the individual's inner experience.
Key Beliefs: "Trust thyself," "No law can sacred to me that is my nature." This contrasts sharply with Enlightenment distrust of individual impulse and emotion.
Privilege: The ability to engage in such individualistic contemplation (e.g., communing in the woods) often required a certain financial security or privilege.
**Henry David Thoreau:
Background: Born in Concord, MA, shared Emerson's philosophies. Eccentric, coined the phrase "marching to the beat of a different drummer." Harvard graduate.
"Walden": Chronicled his two years () building and living in a cabin on Emerson's land near Walden Pond. His goal was to live deliberately, close to nature, to understand himself and nature better.
"Civil Disobedience" Essay:
Inspiration: Protest against the Mexican-American War (tensions between Mexico and the US, Mexico gained independence from Spain in ). This war led to the US gaining vast Western territories.
Northern Suspicion: Many northerners suspected the war's purpose was to acquire new slave states. Thoreau shared this view.
Thoreau's Action: Refused to pay taxes as a protest and was jailed.
Justification: The essay explains and justifies his actions, arguing that people did not consent to the war and must follow a "higher law" than government dictates.
Themes: Emphasized individual conscience, questioning authority, and nonconformity (a core part of transcendentalism).
Methods of Protest: Suggested two ways for a concerned citizen to address unjust laws: convince the majority or engage in civil disobedience.
Consequences: Believed one must be willing to accept the consequences of disobeying the law.
Vision of Government: Envisioned a government that recognized the individual as a greater power and authority than the government itself, surpassing democracy.
Influence of "Civil Disobedience": Highly influential on later generations, including Mahatma Gandhi (India) and Martin Luther King Jr.
Era's Spirit: The essay embodies the individualistic spirit of the era, conveying optimism, possibility, and faith in humanity's ability to improve itself and the world.