Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment, and French Revolution History Flashcards

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION: CHALLENGING TRADITION AND THE CHURCH

• The Geocentric Theory     - Developed by Ptolemy, the geocentric model taught that Earth was fixed at the center of the universe while the sun, moon, and planets revolved around it.     - The theory was accepted because it aligned with everyday observation (not feeling the Earth move) and religious belief (humans occupying the central place in creation).     - As observations became more complex, astronomers added "epicycles" to explain irregular planetary motion. These complex adjustments made the model increasingly difficult to defend.

• Nicolaus Copernicus and the Heliocentric Theory ($1543$)     - In his work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, Copernicus introduced a model placing the sun at the center.     - In this system, Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun alongside other planets.     - This model provided a simpler, more mathematically consistent explanation than the geocentric model.     - He relied on mathematics and logical reasoning rather than tradition.     - Fearing controversy and conflict with the Church, Copernicus delayed publishing until the end of his life in $1543$.     - His work introduced the principle that scientific explanation should be based on reason and consistency, not accepted authority.

• Johannes Kepler and Elliptical Motion ($1609$–$1619$)     - Kepler used detailed observational data to discover that planets do not move in perfect circles, but in elliptical orbits.     - His laws of planetary motion described how planets travel in predictable, non-circular paths.     - This corrected Copernicus’s assumption of circular orbits, making the heliocentric model more precise.     - His work challenged the long-held belief that the heavens followed simple, perfect geometric forms.

• Galileo Galilei and the Telescope ($1610$)     - In $1610$, Galileo published The Starry Messenger, detailing discoveries made with an improved telescope.     - Key Observations:         - The moon had mountains and craters, contradicting Aristotle's idea of perfect heavenly bodies.         - Jupiter had moons orbiting it, proving not everything revolved around Earth.         - The phases of Venus supported the heliocentric model.     - Controversy and the Trial of $1633$:         - Galileo wrote in Italian rather than Latin to reach a wider audience and openly criticized geocentric supporters.         - The Catholic Church feared his ideas would undermine their authority.         - In $1633$, he was tried by the Inquisition, forced to recant his views under threat of torture, and placed under house arrest for the remainder of his life.         - In his letter to Grand Duchess Christina ($1615$), he argued that God endowed humans with senses and reason and that the Bible, when rightly understood, would not contradict proven scientific truths.

• Isaac Newton and the Universal Laws ($1687$)     - Published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia).     - Introduced the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.     - Demonstrated that gravity governs both the fall of objects on Earth and the motion of planets.     - Unified the study of motion on Earth and in the heavens under single principles, viewing the universe as a mechanistic system operating like a clock.

• The Scientific Method and Rationalism     - Ren)) Descartes: Developed rationalism, emphasizing knowledge built on reason. Famous for the statement, "I think, therefore I am" ($ext{Cogito, ergo sum}$). He argued for doubting all previous ideas until proven by logic.     - Francis Bacon: Developed the scientific method and empiricism. He argued for inductive reasoning, where specific evidence from experiments and observations leads to broader conclusions. He believed science should have a practical purpose: improving human life in areas like agriculture and industry.

• Women’s Contributions and Obstacles     - Margaret Cavendish: An English philosopher who published Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy under her own name. She challenged the belief that humans could fully control nature and argued humans were part of a larger system.     - Maria Winkelmann: A German astronomer who discovered a comet. Despite her skills, she was denied membership in the Berlin Academy of Science because of her gender.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT: REASON, RIGHTS, AND GOVERNMENT

• Political Roots of the Enlightenment     - The political turmoil of the $1600 ext{s}$ in England (English Civil War, $1642$–$1649$; execution of King Charles I; Glorious Revolution, $1688$) challenged the "Divine Right of Kings."     - Thinkers began to view government as a human institution that could be redesigned using reason.     - Enlightenment thinkers, known as philosophes, applied scientific methods to human society to improve political and economic systems.

• Salons and the Spread of Ideas     - Gatherings held in wealthy homes, often hosted by women, allowed intellectuals to discuss ideas outside the control of the Church and universities.

• Thomas Hobbes and Leviathan ($1651$)     - Influenced by the chaos of the English Civil War.     - Human Nature: He believed humans were naturally self-interested, competitive, and driven by the fear of death.     - State of Nature: A condition of constant conflict ("war… of every man against every man") where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."     - Social Contract: To escape chaos, people give up their freedoms to an absolute ruler (a "Leviathan") who maintains order; the ruler's power is total.

• John Locke and Two Treatises of Government ($1690$)     - Wrote following the peaceful Glorious Revolution.     - Natural Rights: Argued all humans possess inherent rights to "life, health, liberty, or possessions."     - State of Nature: People are governed by reason rather than fear.     - Social Contract/Consent of the Governed: Government is created only to protect natural rights. If a government fails to protect these rights, citizens have the right and responsibility to overthrow it.

• Key Enlightenment Thinkers     - Baron de Montesquieu: Published The Spirit of the Laws ($1748$). Proposed the separation of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent any one person from becoming a tyrant. He stated, "power should be a check to power."     - Voltaire: A French satirist and philosopher who advocated for freedom of thought, speech, and religious tolerance. He criticized the Catholic Church and supported Deism (the belief in a clockmaker God who does not interfere).     - Denis Diderot: Edited the Encyclopedia ($1751$–$1772$). His goal was to gather all human knowledge and make it accessible, promoting scientific thinking and challenging religious superstition.     - Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Wrote The Social Contract ($1762$). He believed society corrupted human nature. He introduced the "general will"—the idea that what is best for the entire community should guide the government. Famous for saying, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."     - Mary Wollstonecraft: Published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ($1792$). She argued that women were capable of reason and deserved the same education as men. She noted the hypocrisy of Enlightenment thinkers who opposed absolute monarchy but supported male dominance over women.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION: FROM REFORM TO TERROR

• The Ancien R))gime (Three Estates)     - France was divided into a rigid class structure:         - First Estate: The Clergy ($130,000$ people). Exempt from taxes.         - Second Estate: The Nobility ($350,000$ people). Held top government/military positions; exempt from taxes.         - Third Estate: Everyone else (98.00 ext{%} of the population). Included the bourgeoisie (middle class) and peasants. Paid all the taxes (taille), feudal dues, and tithes.

• Immediate Causes ($1787$–$1789$)     - Extreme financial debt from wars (including the American Revolution).     - Poor harvests ($1787$–$1788$) led to food shortages and skyrocketing bread prices.     - Weak leadership of King Louis XVI and the unpopularity of Marie Antoinette.     - Meeting of the Estates General ($May ext{ }5, 1789$) to propose a tax on the nobility.

• The Moderate Phase ($June ext{ }1789$–$August ext{ }1792$)     - National Assembly: The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on $June ext{ }17, 1789$.     - Tennis Court Oath ($June ext{ }20, 1789$): An oath taken by members to not disband until a constitution was written.     - Storming of the Bastille ($July ext{ }14, 1789$): Parisians stormed the fortress for gunpowder; it became a symbol of the revolution.     - The Great Fear: Rural peasants attacked noble estates due to rumors of plots.     - Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen ($August ext{ }26, 1789$): Guaranteed equality before the law and basic freedoms.     - Women’s March on Versailles ($October ext{ }1789$): Thousands of women marched to force the king and queen back to Paris.     - Constitution of $1791$: Created a limited constitutional monarchy.

• The Radical Phase ($September ext{ }1792$–$1795$)     - In $1791$, Louis XVI and his family tried to flee to Varennes but were captured, destroying trust in the monarchy.     - The Monarchy was abolished, and the French Republic was declared in $1792$.     - The Reign of Terror ($1793$–$1794$):         - Led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins (radicals).         - The Committee of Public Safety held broad powers to protect the revolution from enemies (foreign nations like Austria/Prussia and internal dissent).         - Execution of Louis XVI ($January ext{ }1793$) and Marie Antoinette.         - Approximately $40,000$ people were executed, many by the guillotine.         - Efforts to "de-Christianize" France: new calendar, renaming streets, closing churches.         - The phase ended with the execution of Robespierre in $July ext{ }1794$.

NAPOLEON AND THE CONSERVATIVE REACTION

• Rise to Power     - After the Terror, the Directory (a weak five-man executive) tried to stabilize France but relied on the military.     - Napoleon Bonaparte, a successful general, seized power in a coup d’)tat in $1799$.     - He established the Consulate, making himself Consul for life ($1802$) and Emperor ($1804$) through controlled votes called plebiscites.

• Domestic Policies     - Concordat of $1801$: Reconciled with the Pope, recognizing Catholicism as the majority religion while keeping state control over church affairs.     - Napoleonic Code ($1804$): A unified legal system establishing equality before the law, religious tolerance, and meritocracy (advancement based on talent, not birth).     - Limits on Reform: The Code reversed revolutionary gains for women, giving husbands complete control over wives and property.

• Empire and Downfall     - Military Success: Dominated Europe between $1807$ and $1812$.     - Three Major Blunders:         - The Continental System: A blockade to cut off trade to Britain ($Britain ext{ }is ext{ }the ext{ }exception$—it had a superior navy). It failed and hurt the European economy.         - The Peninsula War: Napoleon lost $300,000$ men in Spain due to "guerilla tactics."         - The Invasion of Russia ($1812$): Napoleon led over $500,000$ men into Russia. The Russians used a "scorched earth" policy. Harsh winter and supply failures forced a retreat; only a fraction survived.     - Defeat: Defeated by the Sixteenth Coalition in $1814$; exiled to Elba. Returned for the "Hundred Days" but was finally defeated at the Battle of Waterloo ($1815$) and exiled to Saint Helena.

• The Conservative Reaction: Congress of Vienna     - After Napoleon’s final defeat, European leaders met at the Congress of Vienna.     - Goal: Restore the balance of power and original monarchs (Conservatism) to prevent future revolutions and stabilize the continent.

QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION

• Question: In what ways was the Catholic Church the main source of knowledge in medieval Europe?

• Answer: The Church controlled universities, determined acceptable ideas, preserved ancient texts, and the geocentric model it supported was seen as part of God's design, meaning questioning science meant questioning religious truth.

• Question: How did Kepler’s laws of planetary motion improve the accuracy of the heliocentric theory?

• Answer: Kepler identified that orbits were elliptical rather than circular, which fixed the mathematical inconsistencies present in Copernicus's earlier model.

• Question: Why did Galileo’s work lead to conflict with the Catholic Church, and what happened during his trial?

• Answer: His observations (Jupiter's moons, phases of Venus) proved things didn't revolve around Earth. In $1633$, he was tried by the Inquisition, forced to recant his views, and placed under house arrest for life.

• Question: How did Hobbes and Locke interpret the "social contract" differently?

• Answer: Hobbes believed the contract meant giving up all power to an absolute ruler to prevent chaos. Locke believed the contract was a trust to protect natural rights; if the government failed, the people had the right to rebel.

• Question: What was the significance of the Tennis Court Oath and the storming of the Bastille?

• Answer: The Tennis Court Oath was the first act of defiance where the Third Estate claimed the right to write a constitution. The fall of the Bastille prevented the King from using force and became a symbol of revolution.

• Question: Did Napoleon betray or uphold the ideals of the French Revolution?

• Answer: He upheld equality before the law and meritocracy via the Napoleonic Code but betrayed the revolution by crowning himself Emperor, censoring the press, and stripping rights away from women.