IB History DP HL - Unit 3: The First World War, 1914-1919 Notes

I. Causes of the War

Historical Perspectives

  • Fischer Thesis:

    • Proposed by Fritz Fischer in the 1960s.
    • Germany pursued an aggressive foreign policy before 1914.
    • Motivated by the government's desire to gain public support for the Kaiser and German elites, who felt threatened by the rise of socialists.
    • Argues for a basic continuity between German foreign policy from Bismarck to Hitler.

  • Critics of the Fischer Thesis:

    • Gerhard Ritter:
      • Nationalist, conservative historian.
      • Argued Germany was motivated by a desire to preserve Austria’s status and reduce Russian dominance in the Balkans.
      • Suggests no long-term plan for territorial expansion, but rather a defensive strategy responding to Russian mobilization.

  • AJP Taylor:

    • British historian; published War by Timetable in 1969.
    • Argued war plans were a major cause, especially time-sensitive mobilization plans.
    • Once mobilization began, diplomacy couldn't stop the impending conflict.

  • Paul Kennedy:

    • Argues the main reason for the war was London's fear that Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel and northwest France, similar to what Prussia did to France in 1870.

  • Marxist View:

    • Argued by Vladimir Lenin as early as 1916.
    • The war's origins lay in economic motivations: the struggle for natural resources and markets during the age of imperialism.
    • This viewpoint is less prominent today due to a lack of evidence.

Long-term Causes

  • Industrialization:

    • The Second Industrial Revolution of the late 19th century allowed European powers to produce new weapons on a massive scale.
    • The rise of railroads in the 19th century improved the ability to mobilize/move soldiers.

  • Imperialism:

    • Britain, France, and Germany were colonial rivals, which heightened tensions.
    • Examples include the First and Second Moroccan Crisis (1905, 1911).

  • Militarism/Military Plans:

    • Anglo-German Naval Race:

      • 1889: The Naval Defence Act established the “two-power standard” in Britain.
      • 1897-1912: Germany began to expand its navy under Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz.
      • 1906: British unveil the dreadnought.
      • 1911: Winston Churchill became head of the British navy, encouraged build-up.
      • 1912: Germany pulled out of the naval race, Britain “won.”

    • The Schlieffen Plan:

      • Developed by General Count Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905.
      • Designed to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia.
      • Basic idea: rapid thrust through Belgium before Russia could mobilize.
      • Modified by Helmuth von Moltke the Younger in 1908.

    • France’s Plan XVII:

      • Developed by Joseph Joffre, called for a rapid thrust into Germany via Alsace-Lorraine.

  • Alliances:

    • Dual Alliance (1879)
    • Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
    • Franco-Russian Alliance (1894): Negotiated after the breakdown of Bismarck’s alliance system.
    • Anglo-Russian Entente (1907)
    • Triple Entente (1907/1914): France, Russia, and Great Britain, ended Britain’s “splendid isolation.”

  • Nationalism:

    • All nations experienced a rise in nationalism prior to the war.
    • Pan-Germanism:
      • Movement that sought to unite all Germans into one nation-state.
      • Supported imperialism and German expansion in Europe.
      • Promoted by the Pan-German League (1891).
    • Pan-Slavism:
      • Movement that sought to unite Slavic peoples.
      • Desire for liberation from Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
      • Russia came to see itself as the “protector” of all Slavic peoples.

Short-term Causes

  • Conflict in the Balkans:
    • Annexation of Bosnia (1908):
      • Austria annexed Bosnia, angered Russia and Serbia.
      • Germany offered support to Austria, Russians forced to back down.
    • Balkan Wars (1912-13):
      • Conflict between the Balkan League and the Ottoman Empire.
      • Resulted in deteriorated relations between Austria, Russia, and Serbia.
  • The July Crisis (1914):
    • June 28: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist.
    • July 5: Germany issued the “blank cheque” to Austria.
    • July 23: Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia; both sides mobilize.
    • July 28: Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
    • July 30: Russia mobilized.
    • July 30: Germany mobilized and demanded Russia demobilize.
    • August 1: France mobilized, Germany declared war on Russia.
    • August 2: Russia declared war on Germany.
    • August 3: Germany declared war on France.
    • August 4: Germany invaded Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany.

II. The Course of the War

The Early Years, 1914-1915

  • The Western Front:
    • The Battle of the Frontiers (1914) - Failure of Plan XVII
    • The First Battle of the Marne (1914) - Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
    • Race to the Sea, “digging in”
  • Eastern Front:
    • The Battle of Tannenberg (1914) - Germany held off Russia
  • The Mediterranean:
    • The Gallipoli Campaign (1915-16) - Ottoman Empire defeated Britain and France

Technologies and Strategies

  • Defense stronger than offense
  • Heavy artillery
  • Submarine/U-boat
  • Poison gas
  • Machine guns
  • Trench warfare
  • Airplanes/zeppelins
  • Tanks (1916)

Colonial Troops

  • India: 1.3 million soldiers, 74,000 killed
  • China: 140,000 laborers
  • West Africa: Tirailleurs Sénégalais, 200,00 soldiers, 30,000 killed

The Homefront

  • Rationing and the British Blockade
  • Women and the War

War of Attrition, 1916

  • The Battle of Verdun (Feb-Dec 1916)
    • France repelled German offensive
    • French casualties: 336,000–355,000
    • Germany casualties: 379,000–400,000
  • The Battle of the Somme (July-Nov 1916)
    • British/French offensive, German “loss”
    • French casualties: 420,000
    • British casualties: 200,000
    • German casualties: 450,000
  • The Battle of Passchendaele (1917)
    • Allies defeated Germany
    • Allied casualties: 240,000–448,614
    • German casualties: 217,000–400,000

1917: A Pivotal Year

  • The Russian Revolution (1917):
    • March 1917: February Revolution, Nicholas II abdicated
    • March-October: Provisional Government vs. the Soviets and Vladimir Lenin
    • October 1917: October Revolution, Bolsheviks seized power in St. Petersburg and Moscow
    • 1917-1922: Civil war in Russia, Bolsheviks win
    • Bolsheviks became the Communist Party, Russia became the Soviet Union
    • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)
  • April 1917: US entered the war:
    • Prior to 1917: President Woodrow Wilson pursued a policy of neutrality but supplied the British and French.
    • May 7, 1915: German submarines sank the Lusitania
    • January: Germany sent the Zimmermann Telegram
    • February: Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare
    • April: US declared war on Germany, first battles fought in October

The End, 1918

  • The Spring Offensive
    • New tactics: use of storm troopers
    • Germany’s last push
  • The Battle of Amiens (Aug 1918)
    • Major turning point
  • Nov 9: Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, Weimar Republic founded
  • Nov 11, 1918: Germany signed the armistice
  • Why did Germany lose the war?

III. The Paris Peace Accords

  • Peace conference began in January 1919; delegates from 27 countries attended
  • Major figures: Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
  • Each country pursued its own interests in negotiations
  • Woodrow Wilson put forth his Fourteen Points
  • Germany was virtually unable to negotiate and had to accept the terms of the peace.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919)

  • Terms of the treaty:
    • Germany’s army reduced to 100,000 men, reduced production of war materials
    • Germany lost its overseas colonies
    • Germany lost territories in Europe:
      • Posen
      • West Prussia
      • Danzig Corridor
      • Alsace-Lorraine
    • Saarland occupied by the League of Nations, coal produced went to France
    • Germany forced to demilitarize the Rhineland
    • Germany forced to accept full blame for the war in Article 231
    • Germany forced to pay reparations to Allies
  • Winners and losers?

IV. Effects of the War

Political

  • Fall of empires: German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Ottoman
  • Formation of the League of Nations in 1920
  • First communist country: USSR
  • Gave rise to fascist movements in Europe: Italy, Germany, France, etc.
  • Gave rise to nationalist movements in Asia, Middle East (Zionism)

Territorial

  • The New Europe:
    • Weimar Germany
    • Poland
    • Czechoslovakia
    • Austria
    • Hungary
    • Yugoslavia
    • Estonia
    • Latvia
    • Lithuania
    • Turkey

Economic

  • Transition from wartime economy: labor shortages, inflation, surpluses
  • Germany: devastated by British blockade, faced massive reparations payments
  • Britain: economic dominance began to decline, in debt to the US
  • France: had to rebuild after destruction of war, relied on German reparations
  • USA: economic boom as a result of the war, became the dominant economy in the West
  • Cost in billions:
    • Germany: 37.7
    • Britain: 35.3
    • France: 24.2
    • USA: 22.6
    • Russia: 22.2
    • Austria-Hungary: 20.6
    • Italy: 12.4

Social

  • Unprecedented loss of life: casualties numbered 37.7 million
  • Disillusionment and bitterness: the Lost Generation
  • The Roaring Twenties: a challenge to traditional values
  • Women: enjoyed growing emancipation during the war, slowly changing roles, guaranteed the right to vote in Germany, Britain, and the US