HIST 125 Module 1 Notes: The Origins of Modern Europe

Ancient, Medieval, Modern…Postmodern?

  • Modernity lacks a singular de nition, this module explores one historian's view alongside re ning your understanding of modern Europe's origins.
  • Focus will be on four major developments, emphasizing connections between new ideas, values, social movements, and state power.
  • Historian's craft basics: analyzing primary historical sources (documents) and scholarly writing.
  • Reading Connections highlight connections between notes and module readings.
  • Marxist historian Marshall Berman offers a way of understanding modernity, dividing its evolution (1500s-present) into three stages.
  • Berman references cultural and artistic movements; focus on understanding modernity as unique experiences distinct from pre-modern societies.

The Renaissance & The Scientific Revolution

  • Renaissance Humanism: Many modern attitudes emerged during this cultural renewal (“rebirth”).
  • Renaissance Humanism emerged as a response to “scholasticism,” dominant in monasteries since the 12th century.
  • Scholastic philosophers aimed to reconcile Christian truths with knowledge from experience and reason, assuming divine word is infallible.
  • Conflict between faith and reason was seen as illusory, stemming from faulty reasoning, includes Humanism.
  • Humanism: belief in the value of cultivating individual achievement and in humans' infinite potential.
  • Petrarch (1304–1374) was enamored with ancient literature like Cicero (106–43 BCE) and Livy (59 BCE–17 CE).
  • Petrarch is considered a forerunner of humanists due to his fascination with pre-Christian thought and art.
  • Humanism influenced literature and arts; Petrarch wrote in imitation of ancient heroes, unlike scholastic treatises.
  • Humanists rediscovered and preserved classical Greek/Roman works, previously dismissed by medieval scholastics.
  • Interest in secular history and pre-Christian figures led humanists to emphasize individual achievements, sponsored by wealthy patrons.
  • Renaissance had broader impacts: Machiavelli (1469–1527) in The Prince (1513) argued a ruler should set aside moral scruples to unite Italy, challenging the notion of sovereigns as servants of God.
  • Artistic creators became renowned for personal genius, unlike anonymous craftsmen of the past.
  • Examples of Renaissance art:
    • Donatello (1368–1466)
    • Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): Mona Lisa
    • Michelangelo (1475–1564): David (1504), Sistine Chapel ceiling (1512)
    • Raphael (1483–1520).
  • Human subjects were depicted realistically, celebrating human beauty and emotions akin to ancient Greeks/Romans.
  • Emphasis shifted from afterlife to worldly accomplishments, though religion remained important.
  • This cultural rebirth primarily affected the wealthy elite in Western Europe.
  • Reading Connections: Primary sources in "The Meaning of the Renaissance" reflect on the era's place in history.
  • David Lindberg's “The Legacy of Ancient and Medieval Science” focuses on how the Renaissance emphasis on experimental knowledge and human reason contributed to the Scientific Revolution and the rise of modern science.

The Reformation

  • The Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century is sometimes referred to as the end to Christian unity.
  • In reality, Christian unity had been fractured since 1054 when the Pope excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople.
  • The Eastern branch became the Byzantine Empire with Constantinople (Istanbul) as its capital, evolving into the Eastern Orthodox Church.
  • The Western branch adopted Rome, becoming the Catholic Church; separate dogmas and rituals developed over time.
  • Earlier challenges to Church authority existed, like Arianism, Pelagianism, Gnosticism, Montanism, and Donatism, often concerning Christ's nature.
  • John Wycliffe (1320?–1384) advocated for the Bible as the sole authority, challenging Church doctrines on sacraments, priesthood, and the Pope.
  • Martin Luther (1483–1546) protested the sale of indulgences and translated the Bible into German.
  • John Calvin (1509–64) systematized Reformation ideas and established a theocracy in Geneva.
  • Reformation Leaders: Martin Luther and John Calvin
  • Martin Luther (1483–1546) was the son of a coalminer in Saxony, part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. The Holy Roman Empire included regions of modern-day Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic. It was created by Charlemagne in 800 and dissolved by Napoleon in 1806. The Third Reich (1933–1945) of Adolf Hitler, and the Second Reich (1871–1918) created by Bismarck, were later referred to as the First Reich (or Empire).
  • Luther became a priest after a religious vision, witnessing the lavish lifestyle of Church authorities in Rome (1510-1511).
  • In 1517, John Tetzel sold papal indulgences to fund St. Peter’s Basilica, promising reduced time in Purgatory.
  • Luther posted 95 Theses on Wittenberg Cathedral door, denouncing indulgences like Wycliffe and Jan Hus.
  • German princes supported Luther, opposing Rome, Luther argued civil authority should be free from ecclesiastical authority.
  • In 1521, at the Diet of Worms, Luther refused to recant before Emperor Charles V, but was protected by Frederick, Elector of Saxony.
  • Luther translated the Bible to German with the belief that it was possible to achieve unity directly through reading the Word of God.
  • John Calvin (1509–64), a lawyer, was known for radical religious views, leading him to establish a theocracy in Geneva, regulating life by Scripture.
  • Calvin's faith was rationalistic, unlike Luther's mystical approach. Calvin systematized Reformation ideas in Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536), institutionalizing the Reformation.
  • John Knox (1514–72), a Calvin follower, founded the Presbyterian Church of Scotland based on Calvinist teachings.
  • Calvin's followers were called Huguenots in France and Puritans in England.
  • During the Reformation, people were faced with these questions:
    • How does one live according to God's will?
    • Obey Church leaders deriving authority from the Pope?
    • Interpret the Bible independently?
    • Use reason?
    • Listen to one's conscience?
  • Conflicts arise when conscience or Scripture interpretation clashes with Church positions.
  • Reading Connections: Madeleine Gray's “By the Book” chapter provides an overview of these disputes from her study The Protestant Reformation.

The Expansion of Europe: Cortes & the Aztecs

  • The 1450-1700 period was an era of European conquest and expansion, driven by trade and land desires.
  • European explorers ventured further, discovering new lands and peoples in the process.
  • Hernán Cortés's conquest of Mexico in 1519 is examined as a specific historical problem related to European modernity.
  • Cortes landed in Veracruz on April 22, 1519, to conquer the territory for King Charles V of Spain.
  • On the Mexican mainland, Cortés's army encountered an advanced civilization with agriculture, social organization, commerce, artisanship, astronomy, and religion.
  • Cortés entered Mexico-Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519, invited by King Montezuma II, historians debate on whether Montezuma thought Cortes was Quetzalcoatl.
  • Mexico-Tenochtitlan surrendered on August 13, 1521, and was razed.
  • Conquistadors’ accounts are only part of the story.
  • Aztec accounts from 1528 offer alternative perspectives.
  • Reading Connections: Broken Spears anthology compiles Aztec accounts translated from native languages, pay attention to reciprocal perceptions, and actions in Cortes and Aztecs accounts.
  • Study motivations, costs, and consequences of European expansion, recognizing the pain and suffering of victims of the expansion.