The English Revolution and Its Colonial Impact
The Scope and Complexity of the English Revolution
Conceptual Overview: The English Civil Wars are noted as part of a broader historical event known as the English Revolution, which persisted until approximately $1689$.
Historical Significance: This era represents a transformative political revolution similar to the French Revolution of the late eighteenth century and the Russian and Chinese revolutions of the early twentieth century. It redefined the social and political makeup of England.
Documentation and Historiography: Unlike many earlier conflicts, the English Civil War is the first that can be analyzed in extreme detail due to the abundance of firsthand accounts, personal journals, and news pamphlets from The Times.
Ambiguity of Causes: Despite extensive documentation, historians struggle to pin down exact causes, factions, or competing ideologies. Key historiographical interpretations include:
Marxist Interpretation: Argues the war was a transition from an agricultural to a mercantile economy, fueled by peasants losing farm jobs and moving to factories.
Religious Explanation: Cites tensions between Protestants and Catholics regarding the nature of religion in England.
Urban vs. Rural: Notes the South and East of England (urban/heartland) fought against the rural North and West.
The Boredom Theory: Professor Heinzin (grad school anecdote) suggested the war happened for the same reason as World War I: boredom and pent-up energy with no foreign outlet for aggression.
The Geography and Early Factions of the War
Geographic Divide:
Royalists: Primarily located in Wales, Cornwall (then Celtic), and the borders of Scotland.
Parliamentarians: Centered in the South and East of England, the core heartland of the English state.
Symmetry of Forces: In traditional civil war fashion, the two groups—the King's forces and Parliament—were initially equal in strength. Early battles resulted in thousands of casualties without a clear advantage for either side.
The New Model Army (NMA): A Professional and Political Force
Creation: Parliament created the New Model Army out of a need for men, money, and supplies that could not be sourced from the European continent.
Professionalism: The NMA was the first professional army in the world since the fall of the Roman Empire. Key features included:
Logistics: Dedicated systems of supply.
MOS (Military Occupational Specialty): Specialized roles such as engineers and riflemen.
Medical Corps: Dedicated medical support.
Code of Military Justice: A formalized legal system for soldiers.
Institutional Identity: It was a religiously charged institution. A key quote describes it as an "instrument of divine wrath come to impose god’s natural order and bring justice to the wicked."
Demographics: It was dominated by Puritans—Protestant fanatics who believed in strict property rights and the removal of all Catholic elements from Christianity. It also served as a haven for political radicals, offering steady pay and benefits packages to those displaced from farms.
Professional Conduct: Unlike medieval armies loyal to specific lords, the NMA was loyal to the English state.
Discipline: Looting and rape were strictly prohibited. Conduct was enforced by summary execution (e.g., being shot on the spot for looting or being hanged with a sign that said "rapist" as a warning to others).
Political Tensions: Parliament vs. New Model Army
The Concept of the Commonwealth: The NMA claimed to represent the "Commonwealth" (all of England) rather than just Parliament or the King.
Disbandment Conflict ($1647$): After the King’s initial defeat, Parliament attempted to disband the NMA without pay due to a lack of funds.
The Army’s Refusal: The army responded: "We are no mercenary army fighting for pay, but in defense of our own and our people’s just liberties, and we will not disband until our grievances are heard and settled."
Agitators: The army elected political officers called "agitators" to represent regiments in negotiations with the King and Parliament regarding the future of the government.
Factions within the New Model Army: Grandees vs. Levelers
The Grandees:
Comprised of officers and nobles.
Goals: Wanted their pay and the restoration of the "Ancient Constitution" (Magna Carta, common law, and Parliament) to ensure their own continued dominance.
Proposal for Democracy: Argued that only landowners whose land produced at least a year should have a say in government, claiming such individuals have a "permanent vested interest" in the country.
The Levelers:
Backed by the rank and file; led by figures like Colonel Thomas Rainborough and John Lilburn.
Universal Suffrage: Pushed for democracy and universal suffrage for everyone (including women). Rainborough stated: "everyone that has to live under this government ought, by their own consent, choose that government."
Social Equality: Wanted to abolish noble privilege and ensure legal equality ("level the playing field").
Legal Reforms: Insisted on due process and trial by jury in all civil and criminal cases.
Veterans' Affairs: Demanded pensions for widows and orphans of soldiers.
Agreement of the People: Produced a new constitution aimed at achieving the "sovereignty of the people."
Religious Divisions in Parliament
Presbyterians: Favored local churches appointing leaders subordinate to a national assembly in London. Supported by the Grandees to maintain control.
Independents: Wanted absolute freedom of speech and the repeal of laws mandating participation in government religion.
Success: In $1650$, they succeeded in repealing laws compelling religious participation.
Resulting Groups: Led to the rise of the Quakers (later moved to Pennsylvania), the Diggers (early communists), and the Ranters (fundamentalists who believed the voice in their head was God).
The Second English Civil War and the Death of the King
The Scottish Alliance: Charles I attempted to regain power by making a deal with the Scots to impose Presbyterianism on England in exchange for their military support.
Outcome: This ignited the Second English Civil War. The Scottish Covenanters, under Alexander Leslie, were crushed by the New Model Army.
Execution ($1649$): Oliver Cromwell labeled the King the "man of blood," blaming him for all deaths in the second conflict. Charles I was executed via beheading in front of the Banquet House in London.
The Commonwealth, Ireland, and Mercantilism
The Purge of the Levelers: Worried about losing leverage, Parliament conducted a coup, rounding up and executing Leveler leaders. Most survivors fled to the American colonies (notably ancestors of George Washington and Thomas Jefferson).
Invasion of Ireland: To occupy the army and punish rebels, Parliament sent the NMA to Ireland, where they murdered approximately $40 ext{%}$ of the Irish population.
Mercantilism: Parliament imposed laws requiring colonies to trade only with the British Empire. This led to:
The First Anglo-Dutch War: The Dutch Republic relied on trade with British colonies.
The Conquest of New York: American colonists used the Dutch conflict as an opportunity to seize land from the Dutch.
The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell ($1653$–$1659$)
Dissolution of Parliament: Cromwell forcibly disbanded Parliament in $1653$, calling them "whoremongers," "drunkards," and "corrupt unjust men."
Parliament of the Saints: A staunchly Puritan parliament that failed because it could not figure out how to replace Common Law with Mosaic Law (Old Testament law).
Lord Protector: Cromwell was named Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
Policies of the Protectorate:
Political Equality: All men granted the right to vote (excluding women).
Education Reform: Mandatory literacy so every citizen could read the Bible.
Bureaucracy: A religiously motivated, efficient professional bureaucracy.
Religious Toleration: Allowed Jews to return to England in $1655$ (reversing a centuries-old exile). Tolerated Quakers and Catholics if they "prayed quietly."
Military Rule: The country was divided into $12$ military districts ruled by major generals reporting to Cromwell.
Strict Public Morality:
Banned: Public kissing/holding hands, swearing, drinking, gambling, theaters, concerts, and sports on Sunday.
Closed all ale houses and pubs.
Canceled Christmas: Secret police arrested those celebrating the holiday in their homes.
The Restoration of Charles II ($1660$)
The End of the Protectorate: Following Cromwell's death in $1659$, high taxes and strict morality led the public to welcome the return of the monarchy.
Conditions of the Restoration:
Declaration of Breda/Indulgence: Charles II agreed to religious toleration ("let the people choose").
Land Sales: He recognized the validity of land sales that occurred during the war.
Amnesty: He promised not to pursue those who signed his father's death warrant (though he later broke this, executing $12$ and digging up Cromwell’s body to behead it).
Colonial Defiance: Colonies like Massachusetts and Connecticut refused to hand over fugitives and for over $2$ years refused to recognize Charles II as King.
King Philip’s War and Shifts in Colonial Identity
Hybrid Societies: In New England, a process of cultural exchange existed where Native Americans (Algonquians) lived near Europeans, held trade jobs, and some converted to Christianity (e.g., the Pequots).
Conflict Origins: Tension rose over land use and European agricultural practices that threatened Native hunting. Furthermore, Algonquian men viewed farming as "women’s work" and resisted European attempts to make them farmers.
The Outbreak: Following the execution of Native leaders for murder, a Native American named Philip raised a confederacy and launched a surprise attack on the colonies.
Outcome:
$1/3$ of the Native population was killed.
$1/3$ was enslaved (some sent as far as India).
$1/3$ was placed on reservations (e.g., Deer Island in Boston Harbor).
Shift in In-Group/Out-Group: This war ended the use of Christianity as a social signifier; the "in-group" was redefined by skin color (White) rather than religion.
The Dominion of New England and the Glorious Revolution
The Dominion ($1686$): James II attempted to consolidate colonies into a single unit to enforce trade laws and collection of taxes. He dissolved Plymouth and revoked colonial assemblies.
Resistance: John Wise of Ipswich popularized the phrase "no taxation without representation." Riots broke out in Boston and New York.
The Glorious Revolution ($1689$): Parliament deposed James II and invited William and Mary of Orange to rule, provided they accepted the 1689 English Bill of Rights.
Impact of the 1689 Bill of Rights:
Sovereignty was placed in the people as represented by Parliament.
Confirmed an independent judiciary.
Transferred military control to Parliament.
Prohibited the quartering of troops (inspired by Louis XIV's $1681$ atrocities).
Formally prohibited "cruel and unusual punishment."
Established the right for Protestants to bear arms.
Made the King subordinate to Parliament, ending $1200$ years of supreme royal military authority.