HIST 2619: Lecture 16 - Pakistan: 1947-1971

Introduction to the historical context and key thematic elements of Pakistan's early years post-independence.
Examination of the failure of democracy and rise of authoritarianism.
Analysis of the political economy of defense in Pakistan during the period.
Conclusion summarizing key insights and implications.

The immediate period after Pakistan's independence in 1947 is characterized by turbulence.
Significant Event: In 1948, the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, dies.
Of the 75 years since independence, Pakistan has experienced 33 years of military rule.
The first general elections are held in 1970, which is 24 years after independence.
The dominance of the military has far-reaching implications for the political economy of defense in Pakistan.

The necessity for a seceding state to establish a viable central authority to maintain order and governance.
The requirement to construct a central government from scratch, which placed demands on resources and infrastructure.
The Muslim League's significant political base in Muslim minority provinces versus the need to represent Muslim majority provinces within governance structures.
The first year of Pakistan's existence saw involvement in a war with India over Kashmir, escalating defense needs.
Coercive measures adopted by the central government sought to diminish provincial powers and assert control.
Cold War external factors, specifically alliances leading to US military and financial aid, shaped national policies.

The political landscape from 1947 to 1958 was dominated by a bureaucratic-military (B-M) oligarchy.
Elected leaders during this time faced recurrent dismissals and brutal suppression of civil unrest.
There were competing visions for the post-colonial state, primarily Islamic vs. Secular frameworks.
Military Coup: In 1958, General Ayub Khan seized power, leveraging the B-M alliance to legitimize military governance.

Colonial Policies Reintroduced: The military government reinstated colonial-era practices, including the official nomination of representatives and reinforcement of elite bureaucracy.
Electoral Changes: In 1959, the Electoral College was promulgated, comprising one-third of government-nominated members responsible for electing the President.
Ayub Khan’s Election: In 1960, General Ayub Khan was elected as President.

Ayub Khan enacted the Public Offices Disqualification Order (PODO) and the Elective Bodies Disqualification Order (EBDO) to silence political dissent and opposition.

Underrepresentation of East Pakistan in military and bureaucratic roles led to educational and economic underdevelopment.
The imposition of Urdu as the national language faced resistance from non-Urdu-speaking Bengalis in East Pakistan.
Land Reforms of 1959: Focused on individual holdings rather than family units led to loopholes that exempted large landlords from regulations, allowing them to retain excess land.
A significant amount of state land—1.8 million acres—was confiscated, with 57% being of poor quality, disproportionately favoring military personnel and bureaucrats.

Government initiatives aimed at planned development heavily favored the private sector, resulting in a disparity where West Pakistan advanced while East Pakistan lagged behind.
Profits generated from East Pakistan's agricultural productivity were diverted to invest in the West, fueling discontent and leading to the demand for autonomy by the Awami League.
Ayub Khan's credibility waned after the 1965 war with India, further diminishing his political standing.

Extended periods of military rule greatly influenced Pakistan's development trajectory, reinforcing a political economy shaped by defense expenditure.

India:
- Defense spending: 12-14% of GDP.
- Literacy rate: 43% overall; women: 29% (1985).
- Population growth: 2.1% (1980s).
Pakistan:
- Defense spending: 3.5% of GDP; substantial proportion of national budget allocated for military expenditures.
- Literacy: 33% overall; women: 22% (1985).
- Population growth: 3.2% (1980s).

Pakistan’s elevated defense spending correlates with low savings rates, reliance on foreign aid, and a fragile industrial structure dependent on military imports, exacerbating underdevelopment in other sectors.
The dominance of the military within the government structure entrenched their role in the economy, yielding privileges to military officials in governmental positions, land grants, and access to health and education services.

Each armed service maintains trusts or foundations that invest in the broader economy; for example, the Fauji Foundation operates 8 tax-exempt manufacturing units.
The prevalence of non-elected institutions in governance denotes a disconnect between state authority and class power.
The B-M oligarchy leverages support from landowners and industrialists, facilitating the extraction of economic benefits from governance structures.
The land reform policies exemplify this dynamic.

In 1969, General Yahya Khan succeeded General Ayub Khan.
The first national elections, significant for transitioning to civilian governance, occurred in 1970.
The Awami League of East Pakistan secured a commanding 162 seats in the National Assembly, while the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) led by Zulfiqar Bhutto gained 81 seats in West Pakistan.
The military's subsequent actions against East Pakistan culminated in the formation of Bangladesh in 1971, underscoring the military state’s role in directing national policy and determining inclusion in the development process.