Chapter 7 Learning Test 2

CH 7: Learning

What is Learning?

  • Learning is defined as a change in behavior or knowledge resulting from experience.
  • This definition aligns with behavioral psychology, which emphasizes noticing patterns and making associations.
  • Learning enables adaptation to different situations.

Major Types of Learning

  • Associative Learning:
    • Classical Conditioning
    • Operant Conditioning
  • Cognitive Learning:
    • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning (CC)

  • Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, studied classical conditioning through experiments with dogs and salivation.
  • Classical conditioning involves a neutral stimulus acquiring the ability to produce a response by associating it with a stimulus that already produces a similar response.
  • Components of Classical Conditioning:
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS or US): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
    • Unconditioned Response (UCR or UR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
    • Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
  • Watson & Rayner's Little Albert experiment demonstrated classical conditioning of fear in humans.

Pavlov's Study

  • Before Conditioning:
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (US - food in mouth) produces an Unconditioned Response (UR - salivation).
    • A neutral stimulus (tone) produces no salivation response.
  • During Conditioning:
    • The neutral stimulus (tone) is repeatedly presented just before the Unconditioned Stimulus (US - food in mouth).
    • The Unconditioned Stimulus continues to produce the Unconditioned Response (UR - salivation).
  • After Conditioning:
    • The neutral stimulus (tone) alone now produces a Conditioned Response (CR - salivation), thereby becoming a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

Processes Involved in CC

  • Acquisition:
    • The process of learning associations between stimuli.
    • Timing of the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is crucial.
    • A predictive relationship between the CS and UCS facilitates learning.
  • Biopreparedness:
    • The concept that organisms are biologically predisposed to make particular associations more easily than others.
    • Conditioned Taste Aversion (CTA):
      • A unique form of classical conditioning where a taste is associated with illness.
      • Unique Aspects:
        • Pairing: Often occurs with only one trial of learning.
        • Timing: Can occur even when the interval between the CS (taste) and UCS (illness) is long.

Processes Involved in CC

  • Stimulus Generalization:
    • The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
  • Stimulus Discrimination:
    • The learned ability to distinguish between a Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and other irrelevant stimuli.
  • Extinction:
    • The decrease in the Conditioned Response (CR) when the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS).
  • Example: Graph shows the amount of salivation (CR) decreases as the sound of buzzer (CS) varies from 900 to 1,100 (hertz).

Operant Conditioning (OC)

  • Operant conditioning focuses on the relationship between behavior and its consequences.
  • Contrast with Classical Conditioning (CC):
    • CC involves associating two stimuli; OC involves associating a behavior with a stimulus/consequence.
    • CC responses are reflexive; OC behaviors are voluntary.
    • CC does not depend on the organism’s behavior; OC does depend on the organism’s behavior.
  • B.F. Skinner:
    • A key figure in operant conditioning.
    • Developed the Skinner box (operant chamber) to study animal behavior.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Shaping:
    • Reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior.
  • Biological Predispositions:
    • An animal's natural behaviors can influence what it can learn through operant conditioning.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Stimulus Discrimination:
    • Learning that a behavior will lead to a particular consequence in the presence of some stimuli but not others.
    • Discriminative Stimuli:
      • Signals that a behavior will lead to a particular consequence.
  • Stimulus Generalization:
    • Engaging in a behavior in the presence of stimuli similar to the discriminative stimulus.
  • The level of stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization shown can vary between animals.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Reinforcement:
    • Defined by its effect on behavior (i.e., increasing the likelihood of the behavior).
    • Types of Reinforcement:
      • Positive Reinforcement:
        • Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.
      • Negative Reinforcement:
        • Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

  • Behavior: You put coins into a vending machine.
  • Presentation of a pleasant or positive stimulus: You receive a cold can of soda.
  • Frequency of behavior increases: You put coins in vending machines in the future.

Negative Reinforcement

  • Behavior: In the middle of a boring date, you say you have a headache.
  • Termination of an unpleasant stimulus: The date ends early.
  • Frequency of behavior increases: You use the same tactic on future boring dates.

Ways to Increase Behavior

  • Positive reinforcement: Add a desirable stimulus
    • Pet a dog that comes when you call it; pay the person who paints your house.
  • Negative reinforcement: Remove an aversive stimulus
    • Take painkillers to end pain; fasten seatbelt to end loud beeping.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Schedules of Reinforcement:
    • Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
    • Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing a response only part of the time.
  • Extinction:
    • Partial-Reinforcement Extinction Effect:
      • Behaviors reinforced on a partial schedule are more resistant to extinction than those reinforced on a continuous schedule.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Punishment:
    • Defined by its effect on behavior (i.e., decreasing the likelihood of the behavior).
      • Positive Punishment:
        • Administering an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.
      • Negative Punishment:
        • Withdrawal of a desirable stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior.

Ways to Decrease Behavior

  • Positive punishment: Administer an aversive stimulus
    • Spanking; a parking ticket
  • Negative punishment: Withdraw a desirable stimulus
    • Time-out from privileges (such as time with friends); revoked driver's license

Punishment 1

  • Behavior: You touch a hot iron.
  • Presentation of an unpleasant stimulus: Your hand is burned.
  • Frequency of behavior decreases: You no longer touch hot irons.

Punishment 2 (Penalty)

  • Behavior: You're careless with your ice cream cone.
  • Removal of a pleasant stimulus: The ice cream falls on the ground.
  • Frequency of behavior decreases: You're not as careless with the next cone.

Ways to Decrease Behavior

  • Positive punishment: Administer an aversive stimulus
    • Spray water on a barking dog; give a traffic ticket for speeding.
  • Negative punishment: Withdraw a rewarding stimulus
    • Take away a teen's driving privileges; revoke a library card for nonpayment of fines.

Reinforcement and Punishment

  • Good Gained (Add something good) = Positive Reinforcement.
  • Good Removed (Remove something good) = Negative Punishment.
  • Bad Gained (Add something bad) = Positive Punishment.
  • Bad Removed (Remove something bad) = Negative Reinforcement.

Problems with Punishment

  • Punisher as Discriminative Stimulus: The person delivering the punishment may become a signal for unwanted behavior.
  • Attention: Punishment can sometimes provide attention, which can reinforce the behavior.
  • Fear and Anxiety: Punishment can create fear and anxiety, which can generalize to other situations.
  • Modeling: Punishment can model aggression.
  • Abuse: Risk of physical or emotional abuse.

When Punishment Works Best

  • Immediacy and Consistency: Punishment should be delivered immediately and consistently.
  • Explanation: Provide an explanation for the punishment.

Processes Involved in OC

  • Delay of Consequences:
    • Timing is important; immediate consequences are more effective.

Observational Learning

  • Modeling and Social Learning.
  • Bandura and Bobo Doll Experiments:
    • Demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviors by observing others.

Observational Learning

  • Media Violence:
    • Correlational and experimental evidence suggests a link between media violence and aggression.
  • Other Factors:
    • Other factors, such as family environment and individual characteristics, also play a role in aggression.