Sociological Perspectives on Sex and Gender

The Sociological Distinction: Sex versus Gender

• In the field of sociology, specifically within a Soc 101 framework, the terms "sex" and "gender" are treated as separate theoretical constructs, though they are often used interchangeably or synonymously in general public discourse.
• The misuse of these terms on legal and administrative forms (e.g., at doctor's offices or university enrollment at ASU) reflects a societal misunderstanding. Typically, when a form asks "What is your gender?", it is actually inquiring about biological sex (male or female).
• Sex refers to biological differences, typically viewed as a binary between male and female. This involves:
  • Genitalia (reproductive organs).
  • Hormone levels (e.g., testosterone and estrogen).
  • Physiological traits (e.g., amount of facial hair).
  • Chromosomes (traditional binary of $XY$ for males and $XX$ for females).
• Gender refers to the social definitions, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and ideas associated with being masculine or feminine. It is an identity and a form of expression rather than a biological hardwiring.
• Conflating the two terms leads to social division and prevents true inclusivity by failing to recognize the distinct nature of biological traits versus social identities.

Biological Variation and the Intersex Spectrum

• Sociology acknowledges that sex is biological, but it also recognizes that the interpretation of biological sex is subject to social construction.
• While sex is often categorized as a binary (male/female), there is significant biological variation that complicates this categorization.
• Chromosomal Variations: Beyond the standard binary, individuals may have different combinations such as $XYY$ (Kleinfelter syndrome variants) or $XXY$. These variations can influence testosterone levels and physical development.
• Intersexuality: This is an umbrella term for individuals whose biological characteristics (genitalia, hormones, or chromosomes) do not fit strictly into the 100 percent male or female categories.
  • During human gestation, all fetuses carry the potential for female development; it is the activation of specific genetics that elongates the clitoris into a penis and prevents the development of a vagina for biological males.
  • Intersex individuals often have semi-developed or non-functioning organs of both sexes and are frequently sterile.
• Surgical Intervention (Sexing): Historically, doctors have surgically altered intersex infants to match a chosen sex (often female if those organs are more developed). This is problematic because physical development at puberty (driven by DNA) cannot be predicted. Instances have occurred where a child assigned as female later developed male secondary characteristics like facial hair and musculature during puberty.
• Statistical Context: Approximately $4\%$ of all births involve some degree of intersex characteristics (such as Klinefelter syndrome). To put this into perspective, natural redheads make up roughly $6\%$ of the global population of $7.7\,billion$. This suggests that intersex conditions are not as rare as commonly perceived.
• Sociological Recommendation: Many advocates suggest waiting until puberty to allow the individual's body to develop naturally and the person to establish their own identity before pursuing corrective surgery, unless parents feel pressured by social interpretations of the binary.

The Social Construction of Gender

• Gender is a social construct because its definitions are not consistent across different societies or different time periods within the same society.
• Gender identity refers to an individual's internal sense of self. When identity matches the birth-assigned sex, it is called cisgender (or cis male/cis female).
• Discrepancies between biological sex and gender identity should be viewed as a spectrum rather than a binary threat. Separating the constructs of sex and gender allows for greater tolerance and inclusivity by removing the "right or wrong" binary component.

The Transgender Umbrella

• Transgender is an umbrella term for individuals whose gender identity does not match their birth-assigned sex.
• It is a diverse category that includes, but is not limited to:
  • Individuals who alter their bodies via hormone therapy or surgery to match their identity.
  • Individuals who are comfortable with their birth-assigned sex but do not adhere to traditional masculine or feminine expressions.
  • Identities such as gender queer, non-binary, gender fluid, atypical, and agender.
• It is a common myth that all transgender people desire hormone therapy or surgery. Many do not seek to alter their bodies but still identify under the trans umbrella.
• Historical Terminology: The term "transsexual" was formerly used to describe those seeking medical transitions to fix what they perceived as a "birth defect." While less common now to avoid labeling everyone under the trans umbrella as seeking surgery, some historically found pride in the term as a specific identifier for their experience.
• Transvestic Fetishism vs. Identity: It is critical to distinguish between gender identity and role-play or fetishes. In the past, the term "transvestite" was used degradingly; however, dressing in clothing of the opposite sex (cross-dressing) is often a sexual fetish and is entirely separate from being transgender, which is about a person's core identity as a human being.
• Independence from Orientation: Transgender identity is independent of sexual orientation. A trans or gender-nonconforming person can be straight, gay, bisexual, etc. For example, a man may exhibit feminine characteristics (like the figure in the show Chrisley Knows Best) while being straight.

Medicalization and Gender Dysphoria

• The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) lists Gender Dysphoria as a diagnosis.
• The Problem of Labeling: Defining transgender identity as a psychiatric condition implies it is a mental illness that needs to be "cured" or "fixed" to return to a "normal" cisgender state. This creates prejudice and discrimination within the medical community.
• Access to Care: Paradoxically, the medical community and insurance companies require a diagnosis of Gender Dysphoria for an individual to access counseling, hormones, or surgery.
• Incongruity in Treatment: A grown adult seeking gender-affirming surgery (like breast implants or removal) must often undergo years of psychiatric evaluation and prove their identity to a doctor. In contrast, a cisgender woman seeking cosmetic breast enhancement can typically access the same surgery without any psychiatric diagnosis or approval, provided she can pay (e.g., a cost of approximately $\$7,000$). This power dynamic reflects societal control over gender-nonconforming bodies.

Agents of Gender Socialization

• Family: Socialization starts immediately, sometimes even before birth with selective abortion or gender (sex) reveal parties. Parents socialize children through:
  • Colors: Blue for boys and pink for girls is a modern construction. In the $1920s$, Macy's used this distinction as a marketing ploy. Prior to this, colors were often neutral (beiges/whites) or even reversed (blue as nurturing/feminine like the sky, pink as a variant of red/war/blood/masculine).
  • Toys: Boys are given hammers, construction sets, and sports gear; girls are given dolls, kitchen sets, and play vacuums (e.g., Dirt Devil).
  • Tone of Voice: Parents often use a more protective, nurturing tone with girls and a "brush it off"/tougher approach with boys who get hurt.
• Peers: Peer groups exert immense pressure to conform to gender binaries. Bullying often stems from a peer group's need to reinforce their own fragile identities by rejecting those who are gender fluid.
• School: Educational institutions reinforce gender roles through the "hidden curriculum."
  • Historically, classes were segregated (Shop for boys, Home Economics for girls).
  • Boys are often called on more in science and math classes.
  • Janet Lever (1978): Studied how gender is socialized through play. Boys' sports (like football) emphasize individual roles and hierarchy, where failure leads to being benched or shunned. Girls' sports (like volleyball) often emphasize cooperation and emotional support, even following a mistake.

Cross-Cultural Research: Margaret Mead

• Anthropologist Margaret Mead studied three tribes in New Guinea to determine if gender behaviors were biologically hardwired.
• If gender were biological, it would be identical across all cultures. Her findings refuted this:
  • The Arapesh: Both men and women were passive, emotional, and nurturing (feminine by US standards).
  • The Mundugumor: Both men and women were aggressive and warrior-like (masculine by US standards).
  • The Tchambuli: Gender roles were reversed compared to the US; women were the providers and leaders, while men were more emotional and stayed home with the young. This was close to a matriarchal society.
• Conclusion: Gender is a social construct because it varies significantly by culture.

Structural Inequality: Patriarchy and Sexism

• Patriarchy: A system of social organization where males dominate females. It has been the dominant structure in almost all recorded history.
• Matriarchy: Social dominance by women. Truly matriarchal societies are rare and often more egalitarian than patriarchal ones.
• Sexism: The belief that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other. Sexism limits the potential of both women (the glass ceiling) and men (stigma against men working in childcare/daycare).
• The Wage Gap:
  • In $2018$, the Census Bureau reported women earn $80.7\,cents$ for every dollar earned by a man (the Department of Labor cited $81\,cents$).
  • This gap is partly due to the concentration of women in administrative and service sectors.
  • Even in job-to-job comparisons (same experience/education), women earn approximately $94\,cents$ for every dollar a man makes. While $6\,cents$ seems small, it accumulates to thousands of dollars annually, affecting mortgages and car payments.
• The Glass Ceiling: An unofficial barrier that prevents women from reaching the highest levels of corporate or political power. For example, while women are $52\%$ of the US population, they only make up $15.5\%$ of the Forbes 400 richest people.
• The Second Shift: A term for the double burden of working a job outside the home and then coming home to do the majority of housework and childcare. While men's contribution to housework has increased from $17\%$ to about $35\%$ or $36\%$, women still perform the majority of deep-cleaning tasks (laundry, scrubbing stoves, cleaning toilets).

Feminism: Patterns of Thought

• Feminism is a branch of the Conflict Perspective that focuses specifically on sex and gender inequality.
• Liberal Feminism: The most common form; seeks true equality and egalitarianism for both sexes within the existing social structure. An example is the fight for fathers' custody rights in the early $2000s$ (e.g., the speaker's personal fight in $2001$), which was supported by feminists to ensure equal parental treatment.
• Socialist Feminism: Aims to change social, institutional, and economic levels to eliminate class and gender conflict.
• Radical Feminism: A minority view that seeks to eliminate the concept of gender entirely and overthrow patriarchy. This group is often the most reported on in the news, leading to the myth that all feminists hate men or are "man-haters."
• Feminism fundamentally strives for egalitarianism—the elimination of inequality based on sex and gender.