READING AND WRITING ETA T1

1. Text as a Connected Discourse

  • Text = group of ideas linked together to express one central idea.

  • Discourse = extended expression of thought.

  • Textuality = when discourses are connected → they form a text.

7 Standards of Textuality (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002)

  1. Cohesion – physical connection of words (conjunctions, pronouns, references).

    • Ex: “Maria bought fruits. She ate them later.” (pronoun links).

  2. Coherence – overall meaning makes sense.

    • Ex: An essay about climate change must flow logically (cause → effect → solution).

  3. Intentionality – author’s purpose is clear.

    • Ex: A news article intends to inform; a poem intends to express emotions.

  4. Intertextuality – connected to other texts.

    • Ex: A modern film retelling of Romeo and Juliet.

  5. Informativity – contains new or useful information.

    • Ex: A research paper introducing new findings.

  6. Acceptability – readers recognize it as valid/legit.

    • Ex: A school essay must follow rules of grammar & structure.

  7. Situationality – relevant to the situation/context.

    • Ex: A campaign poster during elections.

👉 Exam Tip: If asked what makes a text “well-written,” remember C-C-I-I-A-S-A.

2. Reading Theories

Reading = constructing meaning from text. There are 3 main models:

Bottom-Up Approach

  • Reading starts with smallest unit (letters → words → sentences → meaning).

  • Phonic & Word Recognition.

  • Pro: builds strong spelling & decoding skills.

  • Con: student may decode without comprehension.

  • Example: sounding out each word in “The dog ran fast” without grasping the story.

Top-Down Approach

  • Reader uses prior knowledge, context, and assumptions → meaning → confirms with words.

  • Reader-centered.

  • Pro: promotes comprehension.

  • Con: may skip details due to weak vocabulary.

  • Example: Guessing the meaning of an unknown word from context.

Interactive Approach

  • Combines bottom-up + top-down.

  • Reader decodes text and uses prior knowledge.

  • Best for comprehension.

  • Example: Using both vocabulary + context to understand a scientific passage.

👉 Memory Aid: Bottom = book-driven, Top = brain-driven, Interactive = balanced.

3. Reading Process

Steps:

  1. Pre-reading – activate schema (background knowledge). Predict content.

    • Ex: Seeing a title “Causes of Global Warming” → you expect environment topics.

  2. While-reading – focus on comprehension.

    • Highlight key ideas, take notes.

  3. Post-reading – check understanding, summarize, evaluate.

Rapid Reading Strategies:

  • Skimming – quick overview, focus on main ideas.

    • Clues: First/last sentence of paragraph, transitional words (“thus, in conclusion”).

  • Scanning – search for specific info (dates, names, keywords).

    • Ex: Looking for the release date of a movie in a long article.

👉 Exam Tip: Skimming = “What’s the text about?”; Scanning = “Where’s the info I need?”

4. Organizing Information

  • Brainstorming → generate raw ideas.

  • Graphic Organizers → structure info visually.

Types of Organizers:

  1. Venn Diagram – compare & contrast.

  2. Network Tree – hierarchy/classification (ex: family tree).

  3. Spider Map – central idea with details branching out.

  4. Timeline – chronological events.

  5. Plot Diagram – structure of story (Exposition → Climax → Resolution).

  6. Problem-Solution Map – outlines issue, causes, possible solutions.

  7. Fishbone Diagram – cause-and-effect analysis.

  8. Cycle – repeating sequence (ex: water cycle).

  9. Series of Events Chain – step-by-step flow (ex: recipe).

Outlining:

  • Topic Outline = keywords/phrases.

  • Sentence Outline = full sentences, more detailed.

👉 Exam Tip: Graphic organizers help for essays & comprehension tests.

5. Properties of a Well-Written Text

  1. Organization – logical flow.

  2. Mechanics – grammar, capitalization, punctuation.

  3. Language Use – clarity, formal tone, avoid slang.

  4. Coherence – ideas make sense together.

  5. Cohesion – smooth connection using transitions (and, however, therefore).

👉 Example of incoherence: “I love pizza. The weather is nice.” (no logical link).

6. Critical Reading

  • Going beyond passive reading → evaluate text critically.

Key Elements:

  • Fact vs Opinion

    • Fact = provable truth (ex: “The Earth revolves around the Sun”).

    • Opinion = belief/interpretation (ex: “Pineapple on pizza tastes best”).

  • Inference = reading between the lines.

  • Conclusion = logical decision based on facts.

  • Author’s Purpose = Persuade, Inform, Entertain (PIE).

  • Tone vs Mood:

    • Tone = writer’s attitude.

    • Mood = feeling created for the reader.

  • Bias = writer’s personal leaning.

Types of Claims:

  1. Claim of Fact – argues about existence, cause, prediction.

    • Ex: “Climate change leads to rising sea levels.”

  2. Claim of Value – argues about good/bad, right/wrong.

    • Ex: “Euthanasia is immoral.”

  3. Claim of Policy – proposes solutions/actions (uses should, must, ought).

    • Ex: “The government should invest more in renewable energy.”

👉 Exam Tip: Fact = prove, Value = judge, Policy = act.

7. Hypertext and Intertext

  • Hypertext: Non-linear reading using electronic links (webpages, wikis, hypermedia).

    • Ex: Wikipedia with clickable links.

  • Intertext: Every text connects to past texts (all writing influenced by previous works).

    • Deliberate = parody, retelling, homage.

    • Latent = unintentional influence.

  • Ex: West Side Story = retelling of Romeo and Juliet.

8. Academic & Professional Writing

Academic Writing:

  • Purpose: Inform, analyze, argue.

  • Features: Formal, 3rd person, cited sources, structured (Intro → Body → Conclusion).

  • Types:

    • Descriptive (summarize, describe).

    • Analytical (compare, break down ideas).

    • Persuasive (argue for a stand).

    • Critical (evaluate + multiple perspectives).

Professional Writing:

  • Workplace writing (reports, ads, memos, proposals).

  • Must be clear, concise, purposeful, audience-appropriate.

  • Purposes: Inform, Instruct, Persuade, Entertain.

9. Article Critique

  • Definition: Evaluate arguments and evidence of an article.

  • Not summary → but judgment (How? Why? How well?).

  • Pre-reading tips: Check author, title, genre, abstract.

  • Format:

    1. Heading

    2. Introduction

    3. Summary

    4. Evaluation

    5. Conclusion

👉 Exam Tip: Focus on strengths & weaknesses of arguments, not just content.

10. Position Paper

  • Definition: Arguable opinion on an issue + supporting evidence.

  • Purpose: Persuade readers to accept your stance.

Parts:

  1. Introduction – issue, background, thesis statement.

  2. Arguments – points + evidence.

  3. Counterarguments – opposing views + rebuttals.

  4. Conclusion – restate thesis + plan of action.

👉 Example Topic: “Should schools ban cellphones?”

  • Argument: Yes, it reduces distractions.

  • Counterargument: But phones help in emergencies.

  • Rebuttal: Schools can have emergency landlines.

🧠 Exam Memory Shortcuts

  • Textuality = C-C-I-I-A-S-A.

  • Reading models = Bottom (decode), Top (context), Interactive (mix).

  • Claims = Fact (prove), Value (judge), Policy (act).

  • PIE Purpose = Persuade, Inform, Entertain.

  • Position Paper = I-A-C-C.

✨ Practice Questions

  1. Differentiate between cohesion and coherence with examples.

  2. Give a situation where skimming is more useful than scanning.

  3. Identify the claim: “The death penalty should be abolished worldwide.”

  4. How is academic writing different from professional writing?

  5. Why is intertextuality important in understanding modern literature?

Professional Writing: Letters, Essays, Resumes, Portfolios

1. Letter of Recommendation

Definition

  • A recommendation letter = written reference that gives insight into a person’s character, skills, and achievements (Purdue OWL, 2024).

Purpose

  • Used for college admissions, employment, scholarships, internships, etc.

  • Acts as third-party confirmation of the applicant’s qualities.

Types

  1. Academic – written by teachers/professors (for university applications).

  2. Employment – written by employers/supervisors (for jobs or promotions).

  3. Character – written by someone who can attest to personality traits (community leaders, mentors).

2. Requesting a Letter of Recommendation

Definition

  • A formal letter asking someone to write a recommendation for you.

  • Must be clear, respectful, and provide context (why, for what, deadline).

Standard Format

  1. Heading – Sender’s address + date.

  2. Inside Address – Recipient’s name, position, organization.

  3. Salutation – “Dear [Title + Last Name],”

  4. Body:

    • Intro → State purpose clearly.

    • Body → Give context, achievements, and qualities to highlight.

    • Closing → Deadline + willingness to provide info.

  5. Complimentary Close – “Sincerely,” + full name/signature.

📌 Example Purpose Statement:
“I am writing to respectfully request a letter of recommendation in support of my application for the Ramon Magsaysay Scholarship Program.”

Tips (Cambridge Admissions Office, 2023)

✅ Ask early – give them time.
✅ Be specific – why you chose them, what they should highlight.
✅ Provide materials – resume, deadlines, achievements.
✅ Use polite, formal tone.
✅ Proofread before sending.

👉 Exam Tip: Always formal. Compare to informal letters → informal = personal, casual (to friends).

3. CET Essay (College Entrance Test Essay)

Role in Admissions

  • CET essays = measure of:

    • Writing clarity

    • Logical reasoning

    • Grammar & mechanics

    • Self-reflection

  • Helps schools evaluate beyond grades: communication, values, and personality under time pressure.

Structure (300–500 words, timed)

  1. Introduction – Hook + Thesis/Central Idea.

    • Ex: Quote, personal anecdote, or strong statement.

  2. Body – Personal experience, reflection, insights.

    • Show values, resilience, problem-solving.

  3. Conclusion – Lessons learned, forward-looking statement.

    • Ex: “This experience taught me responsibility, which I will carry into my college years.”

Strategies to Ace CET Essay

✅ Read prompt carefully.
✅ Answer question directly.
✅ Give specific examples (avoid being vague).
✅ Stay within word/time limits.
✅ Avoid fillers or memorized answers.
✅ Proofread grammar & punctuation.

Mistakes to Avoid ❌

  • Being too vague.

  • Not addressing the prompt.

  • Writing without structure.

  • Overusing flowery language.

  • Using clichés (“I want to change the world…”).

4. Resume Writing

Definition

  • A resume = concise document summarizing qualifications, skills, and experiences for a job.

  • Purpose: highlight strengths, catch employer’s attention, secure interviews.

  • Difference: Resume = short & tailored; CV = detailed (academic focus).

Types of Resume

  1. Chronological – lists experiences in reverse order (latest → oldest).

    • Best for consistent work/academic history.

  2. Functional – highlights skills over dates.

    • Best for career changers or limited experience.

  3. Combination – mix of both.

    • Best for applicants with varied but relevant experiences.

Resume Format

  • Header – Name, contact info (no age, religion, etc.).

  • Objective/Summary – 1–2 lines about goals/qualifications.

  • Education – schools, dates, achievements.

  • Experience – job titles, responsibilities, results (use action verbs).

  • Skills – technical + soft skills.

  • Certifications/Awards/Extracurriculars – only relevant ones.

Resume Tips

✅ Tailor to each job application.
✅ Use strong action verbs (led, analyzed, designed).
✅ Quantify achievements (“Increased sales by 30%”).
✅ Keep it concise – ideally 1 page.
✅ Use professional formatting.
❌ Don’t include unnecessary personal details.

5. Digital Portfolio

Definition

  • An online showcase of your skills, work, and achievements.

  • Includes: resume, project samples, design works, videos, data charts, etc.

10 Tips for a Great Portfolio

  1. Know your audience – clarify purpose & easy navigation.

  2. Keep design simple – consistent layout, no clutter.

  3. Tell your story – journey, goals, personality.

  4. Show evidence – upload work samples with descriptions.

  5. Reflect on goals – include lessons learned.

  6. Show future direction – where you’re headed, growth mindset.

  7. Organize well – keywords, menus, categories.

  8. Maintain regularly – treat as “living document.”

  9. Provide contact info – professional email, LinkedIn, etc.

  10. Seek feedback – mentors, peers.

Language Considerations

  • Use formal, precise language.

  • Be grammatically correct.

  • Maintain consistent tense and formatting.

  • Never copy-paste blindly from online sources.

👉 Exam Tip: Think of your digital portfolio as a professional online identity.

🧠 Memory Shortcuts

  • Recommendation Letter Types = A-E-C → Academic, Employment, Character.

  • Request Letter Format = H-I-S-B-C → Heading, Inside Address, Salutation, Body, Close.

  • CET Essay Flow = I-B-C → Intro, Body, Conclusion.

  • Resume Types = Chronological, Functional, Combination.

  • Digital Portfolio = 3S → Story, Samples, Simplicity.

✨ Practice Questions

  1. Differentiate academic, employment, and character recommendation letters.

  2. What should you include in the body of a request for recommendation?

  3. Why do colleges require CET essays?

  4. Compare chronological vs functional resumes. Which is best for a fresh graduate?

  5. Give 3 qualities of an effective digital portfolio.